<p>Nashville National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in Madison, a suburb of Nashville, in Davidson County, Tennessee. Administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, it encompasses 64.5 acre, and as of the end of 2005, had 34,637 interments.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The initial land for Nashville National Cemetery was acquired in July 1866. A tract of 45 acres was transferred to the United States from Morton B. Howell, Clerk and Master of the Chancery Court of Davidson County, in accordance with a decree of the court in the case of Anderson v. McRoberts & McKee, docket # 2153. The deed was recorded in January 1867, Davidson County deed book 38, page 648. Another 17 acres was conveyed by the Clerk and Master, from the same case, in January 1867 and recorded in Davidson County deed book 38, page 650. In October 1879 a small tract was deeded from J. Watts Judson and recorded in Davidson County deed book 63, page 360.</p><br>
<p>The original interments were transferred from the Nashville City Cemetery, veteran hospital cemeteries around the region, as well as battlefield cemeteries, such as those from the Battle of Franklin. There are over four thousand unknowns buried in Nashville National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Nashville National Cemetery was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1996.</p><br>
<h2>Notable interments</h2><br>
<p>Medal of Honor recipients</p><br>
<p>Private John Carr, for action during the Indian Wars.</p><br>
<p>Private Charles P. Cantrell, for action during the Spanish–American War.</p><br>
<p>Corporal William Franklin Lyell, for action during Korean War.</p><br>
<p>Others</p><br>
<p>Chaplain Erastus M. Cravath, one of the founders of Fisk University.</p><br>
<p>Augustus Herman Pettibone, US Congressman.</p><br>
<p>Barry A. Sadler, Vietnam War veteran, and writer of the song Ballad of the Green Berets.</p><br>
<p>Teddy & Doyle Wilburn, brothers and country music stars.</p><br>
<p>New Albany National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in the city of New Albany, in Floyd County, Indiana. Administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, it encompasses 5.5 acre, and as of the end of 2005, had 6,881 interments. It is managed by Zachary Taylor National Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>New Albany National Cemetery was established in 1862, purchased from local land owner, Dr. Charles Bowman, to inter soldiers who died while serving at the training ground of Camp Noble. Many of the initial interments were also transferred from nearby military hospital cemeteries. The cemetery contains almost three hundred Union soldiers, and two unknown Confederate soldiers.</p><br>
<p>New Albany National Cemetery was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.</p><br>
<p>Image:New Albany National Cemetery entrance.JPGEntrance to the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Image:New Albany National Cemetery graves.JPGGraves in the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Image:New Albany National Cemetery Rostrum.JPGRostrum of the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Image:New Albany National Cemetery Rostrum 2.JPGDistant view of the rostrum</p><br>
<p>Danville National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in the city of Danville, Virginia. Administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, it encompasses 3.5 acre, and as of the end of 2005, it had 2,282 interments. It is managed by Salisbury National Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Danville National Cemetery was established just after the American Civil War in December 1866 on a plot of 2.6 acre. Almost all of the original interments were Union prisoners of war that were held in the city of Danville in tobacco warehouses converted into Confederate prisoner of war camps. Most of the bodies of these American soldiers were initially buried in poorly marked, mass graves, but were later exhumed and buried with individual markers. Soldiers from Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and Wisconsin are some of the states represented. The cemetery is open to visitors throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>Danville National Cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995.</p><br>
<p>Round Loaf is a late-Neolithic or Bronze Age tumulus on Anglezarke Moor in the West Pennine Moors near Chorley in Lancashire, England. The bowl barrow is a scheduled monument considered to be of national importance. It was first scheduled in March 1954. The structure is aligned between Great Hill and Pikestones.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Round Loaf is one of 10,000 bowl barrows constructed between the late-Neolithic period and the late-Bronze Age (2400 - 1500 BC). They are funerary monuments in the form of earth or rubble mounds covering single or multiple burials. Some were surrounded by a ditch. Some are in isolated locations as is Round Loaf and some are grouped in cemeteries. They vary in size and regional variations show a range of different burial practices.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Round Loaf occupies a prominent landmark position on Anglezarke Moor. Some erosion has occurred on its summit. It has not been excavated and its archaeology is possibly undisturbed. The ancient monument includes an oval mound measuring 73 metres from north to south and 66 metres from east to west. It is constructed of earth and small stones to a height of from 3.6 to 5.5 metres. Flakes of flint have been found on the mound&#39;s summit.</p><br>
<p>Danville National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in the city of Danville, in Boyle County, Kentucky. Administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, it has 394 interments and is currently closed to new interments.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Danville National Cemetery is located within the Bellevue Cemetery in Danville. The national cemetery site is located in the north-west corner and containing 0.3 acre. It consists of 18 cemetery lots laid off in the form of a rectangle. Near the center of the north side is a bronze plaque inscribed with "Danville National Cemetery" and the seal of the Veterans Administration (now the Department of Veterans Affairs). A square limestone post, with the letters "U. S." inscribed on the upper face, is situated at each corner of the national cemetery. A flagpole, 70 feet high, constructed in 1971, is located just south of the bronze plaque identifying the national cemetery. There are no buildings, walls, or fences within the national cemetery. Graves are marked with upright marble headstones.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>When the American Civil War started, the federal government appropriated 18 cemetery lots from what was then Danville City Cemetery. The small lot was designated a National Cemetery in 1862. It is divided into six sections, five of which are for the interment of soldiers, and the other for civilians. The original interments were Union soldiers who died while under care in military hospitals in Danville. A Confederate lot in the city cemetery with 66 interments is next to Danville National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>During the early months of 1863, Confederate detachments infiltrated among the Union garrisons trying to protect Kentucky. On March 24, 1863, the city of Danville was captured by General John Pegram and his cavalry brigade, despite stout resistance from Colonel Frank Wolford, commander of the First Kentucky Union Cavalry. Danville was also the site of several hospitals which cared for the Civil War wounded.</p><br>
<p>The Follen Church Society is a historic Unitarian Universalist congregation located at 755 Massachusetts Avenue in Lexington, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church is named for Charles Follen who was the first minister called by the church, in 1835. Follen served the congregation from 1835–1836 and from 1839-1840. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the interim minister of the congregation, then called the Second Congregational Society in Lexington, from 1836 to 1838. This was his last ministerial position.</p><br>
<p>Follen Church, built in 1839, is the oldest standing church building in Lexington. The unique octagonal sanctuary was designed by its first minister, Rev. Charles Follen.</p><br>
<p>On April 30, 1976, the church was added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Follen Community Church.</p><br>
<p>As of August, 2013, Rev. Claire Feingold Thoryn has joined Follen as the church&#39;s settled minister, assisted by Rev. Susanne Skubik Intriligator as Director of Community Engagement. Deb Weiner is the interim Director of Religious Education. Vivian Montgomery is the interim Director of Music.</p><br>
<p>Two Medicine Store, formerly part of Two Medicine Chalet, is a historic building in Glacier National Park in the USA state of Montana. The chalet was originally built in 1914 by the Glacier Park Company, a subsidiary of the Great Northern Railway, as part of the railway&#39;s extensive program of visitor services development at Glacier. The chalet originally featured a complex of log buildings, all built in the rustic style, which provided dining and lodging facilities. Overnight accommodations at the chalet ended with the onset of World War II, and the other buildings at the site were intentionally burned in 1956.</p><br>
<p>President Franklin D. Roosevelt gave a national radio address from this building on August 5, 1934, while on a visit to Glacier.</p><br>
<p>The Two Medicine Store is a National Historic Landmark contributing property, being one of five sites in the Great Northern Railway Buildings National Historic Landmark. While other chalets, Granite Park Chalet and Sperry Chalet, were constructed of stone, the Two Medicine Chalet complex was of log construction.</p><br>
<p>Swiftcurrent Lake is located in the Many Glacier region of Glacier National Park, in the USA state of Montana. The Many Glacier Hotel, the largest hotel in the park, is along the east shore of the lake. Many hiking trails originate from the area and scenic tour boats provide access to the lake for visitors.</p><br>
<p>Swiftcurrent Lake lies at 4,878 ft above sea level. Nearby lakes include the much larger Lake Sherburne to the east and Lake Josephine to the immediate southwest. The mountains immediately west of the lake rise 3,000 ft above the lake. The fast disappearing Grinnell Glacier is one of several glaciers and snowfields that provide water for the streams that replenish the lake. Mount Gould, Grinnell Point and Mount Wilbur are the largest mountains immediately west of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lascar is a stratovolcano within the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, a volcanic arc that spans the countries of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. It is the most active volcano in the region, with records of eruptions going back to 1848. It is composed of two separate cones with several summit craters. The westernmost crater of the eastern cone is presently active. Volcanic activity is characterized by constant release of volcanic gas and occasional vulcanian eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Lascar has been active since at least 56,000 years ago, though some argue for activity 220,000 years ago. The first known activity occurred at the eastern cone, before shifting to the western cone and back again. The magma supplied to the volcano ultimately comes from the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. A number of other volcanoes are found in the region, such as Aguas Calientes, Cordon de Puntas Negras and the giant La Pacana caldera.</p><br>
<p>Three major eruptions of Lascar are known to have occurred: one more than 26,500 years ago, another about 26,450 ± 500 years ago, and a third in 7,250 BCE. The second of these eruptions released 10 - of material and is known as the Soncor eruption. The largest eruption of Lascar known to recorded history occurred in April 1993 and was accompanied by ash fall as far away as Buenos Aires. Because Lascar is located in a remote area, it is monitored primarily by remote sensing. Explosive eruptions are the greatest hazard at Lascar.</p><br>
<p>Lascar, like El Tatio, is a destination for volcano tourism.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name originates from the Atacameño word láskar or lassi (tongue), thought to refer to the shape of the volcano. Other names for the volcano are Hlàscar, Hlascar, Ilascar, Kar Las, Laskar, Toconado and Toconao.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<h3>Regional setting</h3><br>
<p>Volcanoes in the Andes occur in four separate regions: the Northern Volcanic Zone between 2°N and 5°S, the Central Volcanic Zone between 16°S and 28°S, the Southern Volcanic Zone between 33°S and 46°S, and the Austral Volcanic Zone, south of the Southern Volcanic Zone. These volcanic zones are separated by areas where recent volcanism is absent; one common theory is that the subduction processes responsible for volcanism form a subducting plate that is too shallow to trigger the formation of magma. This shallow subduction appears to be triggered by the Nazca Ridge and the Juan Fernandez Ridge; the areas where they subduct beneath the Peru-Chile Trench coincide with the limits of the Central Volcanic Zone. It is possible that when these ridges are subducted, the buoyancy they carry disrupts the subduction process and reduces the supply of water, which is important for the formation of melts.</p><br>
<p>Of these volcanic zones, the Central Volcanic Zone is the largest, covering parts of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. The Central Volcanic Zone is located between two areas where subduction is shallower and volcanic activity is absent. In the Central Volcanic Zone, volcanism has been active for 120 million years, although it has undergone eastward migration during this time. Water released from the subducting plate triggers the formation of basaltic magmas that are then injected into the crust.</p><br>
<p>About 122 volcanoes with Holocene eruptions exist in the Andean Volcanic Belt, including Ojos del Salado which with a height of 6,887 m is the highest volcano in the world. Many of these volcanoes are covered by snow and ice. A number of supervolcanoes exist in the Central Volcanic Zone, they are part of the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.</p><br>
<h3>Local setting</h3><br>
<p>Lascar is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. The volcanism of Lascar relates to the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Central Andes contain many hundreds of volcanoes, extending over the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru. In this remote territory, where eruptions are poorly recorded, many volcanoes are higher than 6,000 m. They are constructed on a crust that is between 50 and thick. Volcanic centres include calderas and associated large ignimbrites, lava domes and stratovolcanoes. The better-researched centres include Galan, Nevados de Payachata, Ollague, Purico Complex, San Pedro–San Pablo, La Pacana, Tata Sabaya and Tumisa. Over 44 volcanoes in the region are considered potentially active, with a number of young volcanoes featuring fumarolic or hydrothermal activity. Guallatiri, for example, features fumarolic activity that is visible in satellite images. Also fumarolically active are: Sabancaya, El Misti, Ubinas, Tacora, Isluga, Irruputuncu, Olca, Ollague, San Pedro, Putana and Lastarria. The largest historical eruption occurred at Huaynaputina in 1600. Given the low population density around many of these volcanoes, there is often little information on their activity.</p><br>
<p>Lascar is located in the Antofagasta Region of Chile, and is 5,641 m, 5,592 m, or 5,450 m high, according to different sources. With a surface area of 54 km&sup2, the volcano has a volume of 15 km3. Geographically, the area of Lascar is located between the Altiplano and the Salar de Atacama 30 km farther west; the terrain at Lascar dips in the direction of the Salar.</p><br>
<p>The new town of Talabre is 17 km west of Lascar., it had a population of 50 inhabitants., stockbreeding and farming were the principal economic activities in Talabre. Chile Route 23 passes about 10 km west of Lascar.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the neighbouring volcanoes Acamarachi, Licancabur and Quimal, there is no evidence of archeological sites on Lascar, possibly because of the volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>Lascar is located in the main volcanic arc, on the western margin of the Altiplano. The andesitic-dacitic Aguas Calientes is located 5 km east of Lascar; it may have formed a lava flow close to the summit during the Holocene. Aguas Calientes is older than Lascar, and it might share a magma chamber. Miocene–Quaternary volcanic centres in the neighbourhood include Cerro Negro in the north, Acamarachi northeast, Tumisa southwest, and the Cordon de Puntas Negras in the south, which Lascar is sometimes considered to be part of. Tumisa, to the south of Lascar, was active between 2.5 and 0.4 million years ago, is composed of dacite and surrounded by pyroclastic flow deposits. East of Lascar lies the La Pacana caldera.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Opla, 20 km west of Lascar, is a hill formed by Permian–Triassic granite. An area of increased electrical conductivity has been identified beneath Lascar and extends to some neighbouring volcanoes, reaching a depth of over 6 km south of Lascar.</p><br>
<p>The 9 km Quebrada de Chaile, the 17 km Quebrada de Soncor and the 17 km Quebrada de Talabre canyons run towards Salar de Atacama; they are 30 - deep and 80 - wide. These valleys were probably formed by erosion during glacial periods. The valleys drain the western, northern and southwestern slopes of Lascar. The southeastern slopes drain into Laguna Lejía, and the northwestern slope drains through the Quebrada de Morro Blanco.</p><br>
<p>Lascar is located atop of a ridge formed by the 5,293 m Cerro Corona and 5,192 m Cerro de Saltar lava domes, south and north of Lascar, respectively. Cerro Corona gets its name from a crown-shaped structure at its top. These domes cover a surface area of about 90 km&sup2;. These lava domes are about 5 million years old, and are composed of dacite and smaller amounts of pyroxene andesite, along with rhyolite and visible minerals including biotite and hornblende. An eruption 16,700 years ago from Corona deposited tephra containing biotite and quartz in Laguna Lejía and generated a rhyodacitic lava flow. Another debris flow from Corona spread towards Salar de Atacama.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lascar is formed by two irregularly shaped truncated cones that extend east–west, on a trend that includes Aguas Calientes. Six craters are located on the volcano, showing evidence that activity has migrated westward. Sometimes only five craters are counted, in which case the central crater is considered to be the active one. The extinct western cone (also known as Apagado) is composed of layers of lava and pyroclastics. Its large crater is filled by another cone, which forms the highest summit of the Lascar volcano. Immediately east of it lies the eastern cone, which is contiguous with the western cone. The eastern cone (also known as Activo) is capped off with three distinct craters. Of these, the eastern crater has the largest diameter of 1 km, but the western crater was the active centre in 1964. Measurements made from 1961 to 1997 determined that the eastern crater is 1 km wide and 150 - deep, the central crater is 600 m wide and 100 - deep, and the western crater is 800 m wide and 200 - deep, increasing to 400 m depth in 2005–2006. The westernmost of these three eastern craters is the currently active one, surrounded by rims that reach heights of 150 m. In 1985, a 150 x hot spot in this crater was observed in satellite images. In the centre of the westernmost crater lies a smaller crater, 250 m deep and 300 m wide. There are many fumaroles along the rim of the inner crater.</p><br>
<p>Layers of lava and pyroclastics are discernible in the craters. These craters are not collapsed calderas, and there is no evidence of the deposits a large explosion would produce. Remnants of a previous edifice are visible in the craters; this older edifice constitutes the bulk of the eastern cone. There are traces of a sector collapse towards the northeast, with an associated horseshoe-shaped scar.</p><br>
<p>Large lava flows are noticeable on the flanks of the volcano, with a total of eight lava flows recognized. They extend from the summit craters, although none of them appear to be associated with the currently active crater. Flows from the first stage of Lascar&#39;s activity are exposed at its western foot, while lava flows are buried beneath pyroclastic material on the eastern flank. A 6 km lava flow on the northern flank reaches almost to Talabre. This lava flow is known as the Tumbres–Talabre lava flow; its margins are 10 - high, and it features a central channel. The flow advanced just north of the head of Quebrada Talabre before passing over cliffs and entering it. Another lava flow on the southwest flank is known as the Capricorn Lava. This dacitic lava was erupted on Lascar at high altitude and has a blocky surface. It features well developed levees and a 10 m flow front. Its rocks have a pale gray-blue colour, and their composition resembles the Soncor flow, despite more mafic lavas and pyroclastics being erupted in the time period between the emplacement of the Soncor flow and the Capricorn Lava.</p><br>
<p>An early pyroclastic flow, the Saltar Flow, is exposed on the eastern flank. It was emplaced after the collapse of the oldest edifice, covering Aguas Calientes&#39; western slopes. The flow deposit was later modified by glacial activity. The Soncor flow is found primarily on the western side of Lascar, with part of it also southeast of Lascar. On the western slope, it buries the even older Piedras Grandes flow, which crops out only at the margins of the Soncor flow. While the Piedras Grandes flow was formed by a glacier run that transported blocks with sizes of up to 8 m, Soncor was formed by a large eruption. The large eruption gave rise to a pyroclastic flow that extended 27 km westward and contained breccia and various magmas. It was accompanied by a Plinian fall deposit. Finally, the andesitic pumice Tumbres flow is found on the northwest–west–southwestern slopes of Lascar.</p><br>
<p>The Quebrada Talabre cuts into the upper flanks of Lascar and eventually joins the Quebrada Soncor. Lahar deposits are found in adjacent valleys, suggesting that wetter periods had occurred during Lascar&#39;s activity. The Quebrada Talabre was scoured by pyroclastic flows during the 1993 eruption, exposing bedrock and Tertiary ignimbrites. Traces of glacial action are found on the older parts of Lascar at altitudes above 4,600 m and include meltwater gorges, striated rock surfaces, and U-shaped valleys. Moraines are found at Tumisa down to an altitude of 4,850 m.</p><br>
<p>The volcano sits above a major local geological trend, the north–south Miscanti Line. Other volcanic centres are also located on this line, including the Corona and Saltar lava domes, and the Miscanti and Lejia volcanoes. The Miscanti Line dissects the Quaternary basement beneath Lascar, and it may be a hinge of a fold that is being propagated by faults. The formation of the first cone at Lascar may have been facilitated by the intersection between the Miscanti Line and another east–west lineament formed by Pliocene–Pleistocene tectonic compression of the region, and the lineament would have worked as an ascent path for magma. At least four alignments of volcanoes are recognized in the region.</p><br>
<h3>Composition</h3><br>
<p>Lascar rocks consist of andesite and dacite. These rocks have a "2-pyroxene" composition, although the old Piedras Grandes and Soncor rocks contain hornblende. Other minerals include anhydrite, augite, plagioclase, apatite, ilmenite, magnetite, olivine, orthopyroxene, phyrrotite, quartz, rhyolite in the groundmass, and spinel in inclusions. Dacite has more plagioclase and rhyolite. Additional component minerals found at Lascar include anorthite, augite bordering on diopside, bronzite, fassaite, forsterite, hypersthene, pigeonite and more.</p><br>
<p>The rocks of Lascar belong to the calc-alkaline series. concentrations range from 55.5 to 67.8% by weight, and the rocks have medium to large concentrations of potassium. The magmas are contaminated by the local crust, but not to the extent found in the Galan or Purico complex eruption products. The chemistry of Lascar&#39;s rocks is fairly similar to those of neighbouring Tumisa volcano.</p><br>
<p>Magma erupted by Lascar appears to form from the mixing of mafic and more evolved magmas; the 1993 eruption deposits contain bands of different rocks. Specifically, basaltic andesite magma is periodically injected into a magma chamber, where crystal fractionation and mixing processes take place. The process happens frequently, thus the magmas are relatively unevolved; presumably, if the supply of mafic magma is steady, the products are andesitic, otherwise dacite forms. This origin of Lascar magmas is reflected in the textures of rocks. The overall magma supply rate of Lascar is 0.02 -.</p><br>
<p>The magma chamber of Lascar appears to lie at depths of 10 -, although the lack of deformation of the edifice during the 1993 eruption indicates that it may be deeper, over 25 - or even over 40 km deep. There appear to be two distinct chamber systems, an andesitic one that is responsible for the frequent andesite lava and pyroclastic flow activity, and a dacitic one that was involved in the Piedras Grandes and Soncor activities.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures of the magma chamber range from 890 -; the mafic magmas that are injected in the chamber are about 150 - hotter than the extant andesite and dacite. The chamber may be surrounded by skarnic alteration. This alteration gives rise to wollastonite and pyroxene-containing skarn, depending on the distance from the magma chamber walls. Metasomatism does further affect rocks derived from magma chamber walls. The conditions at the magma chamber may be comparable to these under which epithermal mineral deposits form. The oxidation conditions in the magma chamber are favourable for the formation of sulfate, but unfavourable for the deposition of sulfide minerals.</p><br>
<p>A number of xenoliths occur in Lascars rocks; a large amount of the phenocrysts are ultimately derived from them. Hornfels, skarn, and rocks that are part of Lascars lava dome ridge are the source of these xenoliths. Minerals encountered in xenoliths include andradite, anhydrite, anorthite, apatite, biotite, calcite, diopside, fassaite, garnet, gypsum, ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, orthopyroxene, perovskite, plagioclase, prehnite, quartz, sphene, thorite, wilkeite, wollastonite and zircon. A number of such xenoliths formed from carbonate rocks that were influenced by magma of Lascar and of other volcanoes such as Tumisa.</p><br>
<h3>Gas emissions</h3><br>
<p>Lascar emits plumes of gas and white clouds of condensed water vapor, mostly over many hundreds of fumarolic vents, which are chiefly located in the active crater. In December 2002, two fumaroles had temperatures exceeding 295 &deg;C. Total flux is estimated to be 1,312 -, and occurs even between eruptions.</p><br>
<p>There are high-temperature fumaroles (temperatures equal to or exceeding 150 &deg;C) and low-temperature fumaroles (temperatures of less than 82 &deg;C), with noticeable chemical differences between the two; the latter tend to emit far more water than carbon dioxide. The fumaroles also release carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, and smaller amounts of helium. Hydrocarbons and other organic compounds are also found in the low-temperature fumaroles. Trace elements include arsenic, boron and titanium, with smaller amounts of barium, chromium, copper, lead, strontium and zinc.</p><br>
<p>Release rates of amounted to 27 t/day in 1989, and 28 t/day in 2003. Overall sulfur output ranges between 200 and. This corresponds to about 1% of global volcanic sulfur emissions, and is comparable to Kilauea and Villarica. Lascar was a substantial source of sulfur dioxide for the atmosphere around 30° south, reaching a proportion of 20–40% the sulfur over South America and still 10–20% over the South Indian Ocean. In 2005, Lascar was the third-largest source of volcanic sulfur dioxide in the world among continuously active volcanoes, behind Etna in Italy and Bagana in Papua-New Guinea. Since 2014, however, the Peruvian volcanoes Sabancaya and Ubinas have become the largest source of tropospheric sulfur dioxide from the Central Volcanic Zone. There are temporal variations in the output: after a decrease in 2009, sulfur output increased in 2012, probably as a consequence of the arrival of new magma at depth. There is no clear association between periods of degassing and eruptions. Sulfur is released from areas all over the cone, resulting in a noticeable sulfur smell.</p><br>
<p>Hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride are also released in large amounts, with estimates made in 2003–2004 indicating a mass flux of 340,000,000 kg/yr and 150,000,000 kg/yr respectively. They correspond to about 2 and 5%, respectively, of the global volcanic flux of these compounds.</p><br>
<p>Emission of other elements:</p><br>
<p>Sulfate dust particles are also released in large amounts, with a rate of about 100,000 trillion particles per second.</p><br>
<p>Gases are partly supplied from shallow magma; the volume of magma erupted is too small to contain all the exhalations. The release of gas by the magma is favoured by strong temperature contrasts between incoming magma and the magma chamber, and processes occurring during the mixing may explain the high emission of sulfur dioxide by Lascar. The presence of argon and nitrogen in low-temperature fumaroles indicates that air is involved in their formation, although a portion of each of these two gases is non-atmospheric.</p><br>
<p>Sulfur and chlorine may be derived from the crust, evaporites such as these found at Salar de Atacama, subducted lithosphere or the mantle. Carbon in the gases may come from skarn assimilation. Sulfur isotope data support the notion that evaporite deposits contribute part of Lascar&#39;s sulfur. Water appears to be in part magmatic and in part precipitation-derived. The high concentrations of halogens are typical for subduction-associated volcanoes; the halogens are supplied to the volcanoes through subduction-induced processes that act on the crust and the subducting plate.</p><br>
<p>The heat output of Lascar is about 75 - during regular activity, but has been estimated to be as high as 2.5 GW. Electrical conductivity data suggest that a hydrothermal system exists beneath Lascar, but the existence of such a system has been questioned.</p><br>
<h3>Basement</h3><br>
<p>Lascar rests atop the Atana ignimbrite, a rhyodacitic sheet which was erupted by La Pacana caldera 4.5–3.7 million years ago. The Pampa Chamaca and Tuyajto ignimbrites are somewhat younger, 2.6–2.2 million and less than 1 million years respectively. These ignimbrites form a 3° steep slope in the area. Other basement rocks are the sandstone-containing marine Devonian–Carboniferous Lila formation, the red-orange Permian Cas formation containing volcanic rocks and granites, as well as the volcanic Permian–Triassic Peine formation and Cerro Negro strata, which also contain intruded rocks and lake sediments. These formations are not visible in the Lascar area, but they crop out close to the Salar de Atacama. Tertiary sediment and volcanic rocks can also be found. The presence of Mesozoic limestone is indicated by xenoliths in Lascar&#39;s lavas; the only place they crop out farther east is in Argentina. This limestone formation has been identified as the Yacoraite formation. Later deposits include the Cenozoic sedimentary Quepe strata. Landforms over this basement include ignimbrites, lava domes, and stratovolcanoes. Exposures of the basement are often delimited by faults.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and biota</h2><br>
<p>The area around Lascar is one of the driest and highest volcanic settings in the world. Precipitation at Lascar is about 50-100 mm/yr and consists mostly of snow. Persistent snow cover exists on the western and southern slopes of the volcano; it contributes partly to the fumarole water. In 1993, yearly precipitation at several towns around Lascar ranged from 2.5 to 20.1 mm. Lascar is located close to the Atacama Desert, one of the world&#39;s driest deserts.</p><br>
<p>During the glacial periods, the volcano most likely featured small glaciers. The equilibrium line at Lascar was at an altitude of 4,700 -. Traces of glaciation also exist at Cerros de Saltar. The end of glaciation may have accompanied an increase in volcanic activity, a phenomenon that has been noted at other volcanoes. 8,500 years ago, the climate in the region became much drier, and the amount of erosion decreased substantially.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures in the surrounding region range between -25 and. Measurements made on the southwest rim of the main crater in 2009–2012 indicated air temperatures of 10 -. The present-day snowline in the region lies at an altitude of 6,050 m, higher than the summit of Lascar.</p><br>
<p>Due to the dry climate, there is little vegetation at Lascar. Bunch grass and shrubs grow on the volcano&#39;s slopes. In the deep valleys, groundwater and streams support more plants.</p><br>
<p>Volcanic activity at Lascar affects neighbouring ecosystems such as the Aguas Calientes crater lake and Laguna Lejia; flamingos disappeared from the latter after the 1993 eruption and did not return until 2007. Other reports claim that flamingos remained; other animals like donkeys and llamas were seen around the volcano one day after its eruption.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Lascar is the most active volcano in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone, and a steady pattern of eruptive activity has persisted for centuries. A tall plume of water and sulfur dioxide is found at Lascar. Most present-day activity consists of the release of fumarolic gas with additional vulcanian activity that generates eruption columns several kilometres high. The long-term magma supply rate of Lascar is about 0.08 km3/kyr.</p><br>
<h3>Early activity</h3><br>
<p>The oldest volcanic activity at Lascar occurred between 220,000 and less than 50,000 years ago. Activity has alternated between the eastern and western part of the volcano during its history. The eastern edifice formed first (stage I), erupting andesite containing pyroxene, and eventually forming the Chaile and Saltar pyroclastic flows. The oldest mafic andesites are less than 43,000 years old, while the Chaile and Saltar pyroclastic flows erupted over 26,500 years ago. An alternative dating scheme considers Chaile to be 47,000 ± 16,000 years old and Saltar 167,000 ± 9,000 years old.</p><br>
<p>Lava flows less than 50 m thick issued from the stage I cone and reached lengths of 16 km. They occur beneath altitudes of 4,100 m, their vents buried by later activity. The lavas from stage I are mostly exposed north and west of Lascar. The Chaile flows are actually formed by two separate units and are found on the southwest flanks of the volcano, up to a distance of 6 km. They reach thicknesses of 5 m in the upper unit and 30 m in the lower one. The Saltar flow reached widths of 0.7 - and thicknesses of 5 -, increasing to 35 m where the flow entered valleys. At least nine units form the Saltar deposit, with the northern flows displaying flow welding. These deposits have volumes of 0.1 km3 and probably formed when an explosive eruption took place in a lava lake. After the end of stage I, a period of glacial erosion occurred prior to new activity, which created furrows in the Saltar flow. Imprecise argon–argon dating on younger andesites has yielded dates of 14,000 ± 18,000 and 17,000 ± 22,000 years.</p><br>
<p>Later volcanic activity buried this edifice beneath thin pyroclastic flows. The western edifice generated a complex of lava domes (stage II), which was probably surrounded by a horseshoe-shaped crater open to the west. Possibly, the magma chamber of stage I had almost solidified when the injection of basaltic magma at depths of over 5 km triggered a remelting. Andesite-rhyodacite intrusions occurred beneath the volcano, some of which were still hot when the Soncor eruption tore them out of the ground. An ice cap formed over Lascar at that time, feeding two glaciers that extended northeast and southeast away from the volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Piedras Grandes unit</h3><br>
<p>The stage II activity was accompanied by the eruption of block-and-ash flows consisting of andesite, and an eruption whose deposits include blocks with sizes of 15 m. This unit, formed during stage II, is known as Piedras Grandes,and is exposed on the western slopes below about 4,900 m altitude. The unit is about 2 km wide and consists of large blocks encased in ash. The composition of the Piedras Grandes unit is andesite containing amphibole, basaltic andesite and hornblende. The Piedras Grandes unit is over 26,500 years old, possibly between 63,000 and 100,000 years old. Temperatures have been estimated to be 740 - for the andesite and 1,130 - for the basaltic andesite. The magmas were formed from a remelted proto-pluton that had been heated and resupplied with volatiles by mafic magmas.</p><br>
<p>The lava domes interacted with glaciers, resulting in the formation of a glacier run whose deposits are found as far as 10 km from the volcano. Blocks with sizes of up to 15 m were transported by this flow. An alternative theory posits that the Piedras Grandes unit formed when an ice cap on Lascar interacted with a block-and-ash flow erupted by Aguas Calientes.</p><br>
<h3>Soncor eruption</h3><br>
<p>A major Plinian eruption occurred 26,450 ± 500 years ago, releasing 10 - of ejecta, both ash and pyroclastic flows. The deposits left contain both andesite and dacite, with phenocrysts consisting of apatite, augite, biotite, iron-titanium oxides, orthopyroxene and plagioclase in a rhyolite matrix. The Plinian deposit has a colour ranging from white to creamy. Like the Piedras Grandes rocks, they tend towards high potassium quantities, and resemble other volcanic rocks of Lascar and the Central Andes in composition. The deposits are formed by a Plinian fallout deposit and an ignimbrite rich in lithics. This Plinian deposit reaches thicknesses of 22 m and fell from a 22 to 30 km eruption column.</p><br>
<p>The Soncor ignimbrite extended as much as 27 km west from the volcano, 10 km north and 15 km south. It is white, heterogeneous and mostly featureless with only weak sorting, but features a noticeable compositional zonation. The ignimbrite features three facies, one rich in breccia, another rich in pumice, and a normal ignimbrite.</p><br>
<p>Ignimbrite was channeled to the Salar de Atacama by the Quebrada de Chaile, Quebrada de Soncor and Quebrada de Talabre canyons and some smaller valleys, northeastwards by the Quebrada de Morro Blanco and as far as 11 km southeastwards over the Pampa Leija area. In these valleys, the ignimbrite can be as much as 60 m thick. Pumices are encased in the ignimbrite as lenses and levees and are also found in the terrain above the canyons. Estimated temperatures decreased from 800 - at the vent to 580 - farther down the flows. At the time of emplacement, the ignimbrite was still 200 -. Magma temperatures have been estimated at 900 -. The Soncor fallout deposit contains a basal gravelly layer and several layers of andesitic and dacitic pumice which also contain lithics. The total volume of the Soncor eruption products has been estimated to be either 5.6 km3 dense rock equivalent or 10 km3 net volume, both minimum estimates. Lithic rocks derived both from the pre-Soncor volcano and the basement are also represented.</p><br>
<p>The magma erupted was generated in a magma chamber starting from andesite, which underwent complex petrogenetic processes. This magma chamber was located at a floor depth of 5 - (older estimate 12 -) and probably had a complex shape, given certain chemical properties of the Soncor rocks. At the time preceding the eruption, the magma chamber had a thermal stratification; injections of mafic magmas had heated the magma chamber and induced convection.</p><br>
<p>A volatile phase containing chlorine formed inside the magma chamber and quickly removed most sulfur from the magma. This sulfur extraction was facilitated by the high oxygen content of the magma, which allowed the formation of sulfur dioxide. Water is a principal volatile involved in the processes of Plinian eruptions; the water content of the Soncor and Piedras Grandes magmas was about 4–5%. The Soncor magmas were associated with a volatile phase that underwent extensive interaction with the future eruption products.</p><br>
<p>The previous volcanic edifice was destroyed by this eruption, which may have formed a caldera. The vent was no wider than 2 km, as it is completely hidden beneath the western cone. Such a vent or caldera is substantially smaller than the volume of rocks erupted, a discrepancy that is also evident in the 1932 eruption of Quizapu. The Soncor magma chamber may have been too deep to collapse when it was emptied, explaining why no significant caldera was formed.</p><br>
<p>The Soncor deposit was subsequently affected by glaciation and the stage I edifice by a debris avalanche, which was radiocarbon dated at 22,310 +2,700/&minus;2000 years ago in the Quebrada de Chaile. This debris avalanche is 50 m thick and 25 km long. The Capricorn Lava overlies the Soncor deposits.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Soncor activity</h3><br>
<p>Later, a new stratovolcano grew over the Soncor vent. This volcano was formed by andesite-dacite lava flows (stage III) and scoria. Lava flows from this stage have thicknesses of 20 - and lengths reaching 5 km. It has a volume of 5 -. The growth of this volcano was preceded by a period of erosion between 20,800–20,100 and 12,500 years ago, coincident with the Lake Minchin humid period. Glaciers in the region reached their maximum size at that time. The deposits left by this erosional period contain no clear evidence of stage III activity; indeed Lascar was probably inactive between 14,000 and 10,500 years ago. However, an eruption of the Cerro Corona lava dome occurred during this period, and activity of stage III did not commence earlier than 22,300 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The Tumbres eruption occurred around 7250 BCE, commencing with the eruption of pumice falls that reach thicknesses of less than 1.2 m. Afterwards, up to four different units of pyroclastic flows, each 1 - thick, formed deposits up to 10 km long. At the end of the eruption, a 1.5 km caldera and the two western craters formed. The deposits left by this eruption contain basaltic andesite-andesite and were subject to agglutination and welding. Originally considered part of stage III, it was more recently attributed to stage IV given the considerable (6,000 years) temporal gap between the Tumbres eruption and stage III volcanism, and the geochemistry of the rocks. The Manquez agglutinate above the Tumbres deposits was formed either by the Tumbres eruption or by a subsequent stage; a pyroclastic cone in the western crater may be associated with this agglutinate.</p><br>
<p>Activity subsequently shifted to the eastern edifice. Around 5150 ± 1250 BCE, as obtained by surface exposure dating, the Tumbres-Talabre lava flow was erupted from the eastern crater. This flow extends 8 km northwest and is 20 - thick. The Tumbres-Talabre flow was originally considered to be of late-19th-century age. It probably formed when one of the craters filled with andesitic lava to the point of overflow. The three eastern summit craters formed at the time when the Tumbres-Talabre flow erupted in the remains of the stage I cone. This edifice is the currently active one, with the deepest of its three summit craters being active.</p><br>
<h3>Historical activity</h3><br>
<p>Lascar has erupted about thirty times since the 19th century. Written reports of volcanic activity exist since the 16th century, when the Spaniards arrived in the region, though few records exist from before 1848. Volcanic activity recorded after 1848 consists chiefly of fumarolic emissions and occasional explosive activity. Recorded eruptions occurred in 1858, 1875, 1883–1885, 1898–1900(?) and 1902, ranging from a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 0 to VEI 2. The 1933 eruption was seen as far away as Chuquicamata. Another series of eruptions occurred between November 1951 and January 1952; one eruption is recorded from 1940. Eruptions were observed in March 1960, which were accompanied by earthquakes felt in Toconao, as well as in September 1964 when ash fell in Socaire. Yet another eruption sequence occurred between 1959 and 1969. Eruptions in 1972 and 1974 are uncertain. For some eruptions, including the January 1854 eruption, it is not clear whether they occurred at Lascar or Aguas Calientes, and some early reports of volcanic activity at Aguas Calientes probably refer to Lascar.</p><br>
<p>In 1984, Lascar awakened to new activity; satellite images noted the presence of hot spots on the volcano. Landsat images taken during this time indicate that a lava lake may have existed in the central crater, generating a plume of volcanic gases and, in September 1986, a vulcanian eruption happened and dropped ash in Salta, Argentina. This eruption was first noticed when ash fell on Salta, and was accompanied by anomalies in the heat emission from the volcano recorded by satellite. The eruption was also observed by geologists in Toconao, where the explosion was violent enough to wake up people who were sleeping. Observers noted the formation of a cauliflower-shaped cloud that eventually developed into a mushroom cloud with a maximum height of 9.4 km above the volcano. The eruption itself lasted only about five minutes and consisted of two pulses. Ash fall in Salta occurred about one hour after the eruption. This eruption was the most significant of the previous two decades, having a VEI of 3. Preceding historical eruptions did not exceed 2.</p><br>
<p>A 200 m and 50 m lava dome formed in early 1989. This dome began to shrink in October 1989, and in December 1989, white clouds rose 2 km above Lascar&#39;s crater. On 20 February 1990, an eruption column rose 8 - above the crater, resulting in ash fall over 100 km away from the volcano. In March 1990, the lava dome had a temperature of 100 -, with some parts exceeding 900 &deg;C. Lava bombs with diameters of up to 1.5 m were hurled as far as 4 km from the crater, presumably as a consequence of the lava dome exploding. Some of the material came from the conduit walls. The lava dome had disappeared, but in early 1992, another lava dome formed, eventually reaching a size of 180 - width and 40 m height, and was accompanied by explosions. It probably started shrinking in April 1992, although the shrinkage was directly visible only in November. Small explosions accompanied the shrinkage until, by March 1993, the dome had disappeared again.</p><br>
<p>An alternating cycle of fumarolic activity, an accumulation of fumarolic gases in the conduit and lava dome, and explosive activity followed by renewed fumarolic activity have characterized Lascar&#39;s activity since 1984. Explosive activity presumably occurs when gases can no longer escape. This occurs because as the magma loses its gas content, the number of pores in it, and thus its permeability to gas, decreases. Further, fractures permitting gas passage are obstructed when the magma contracts. Most of the time, numerous fumaroles within the crater form a plume that reaches an altitude of 1,000 m. During minor explosive eruptions, eruption columns reach heights of up to 5,000 m. The temperatures of the lava dome can reach 148 -. This cycle ended after 1993, probably because the April 1993 eruption modified the conditions in the volcanic system. Alternatively, the cycle may have continued, to reach another lava dome collapse stage in early 2003. While eruptions before 1993 had always been preceded by a reduction in heat radiated from the volcano, such a reduction in 1999–2000 did not lead to an eruption, and when an eruption took place in July 2000, it was preceded by only a brief drop in heat radiation.</p><br>
<h3>1993 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Vulcanian explosions started on 18 April 1993, and on 19–20 April 1993, a major eruption occurred. A phreatic eruption around 14:30 on 18 April formed the prelude to the eruption. The eruption commenced with two explosions at 6:28 and 9:20 local time, forming eruption columns 10 km high. Another explosion at 13:02 sent a column 8.5 km high. At least ten different pulses were observed, generating columns of various heights and forming mushroom clouds. The strongest pulse occurred on 20 April between 6:28 and 9:20 and sent flows towards the northwest. This pulse generated an eruption column 23 km high. The total mass flux of the eruption was about 10,000,000 -, comparable to the 1982 eruption of El Chichon. The lava dome in the crater was destroyed and was probably the source of the lava bombs that were thrown as far as 4 km away from the vent; some of these bombs had diameters of 2 m and left large impact craters.</p><br>
<p>The eruption columns underwent several collapses, creating pyroclastic flows at least seven to nine times. The first pyroclastic flow was observed around 10:12 on 19 April. Other flows occurred at 12:05, after 13:37, 17:25, 21:35–21:48, 23:40–23:50 and on 20 April at 9:20. After being discharged through gaps in the crater rim, pyroclastic flows on the northwestern and the eastern sides reached lengths of 8.5 km, and 4 km on the southern side. These flows reached a thickness of about 5 - and advanced through the Quebrada de Talabre, which had intercepted the flows on the northern flank. On the southeastern flank, the pyroclastic flows formed a fan extending several hundred metres into Pampa Leija. Pyroclastic flows reached a speed of 55 m/s, and themselves generated ash surges that partly rose above the flows. Hot pyroclastic flows on the southeastern flank covered a surface area of 13 -. The southern flank flows at first proceeded along a gully before spreading out. The total area covered by the flows is about 14.2 km&sup2; on the northern slopes (Tumbres fan) and 4.3 km&sup2; on the southern slopes (Lejia fan). The flows left lobate structures that form a stacked deposit, which shows such structures as levees and finger-like toes. The speed of these flows has been estimated at 100 -.</p><br>
<p>About 30% of these flows were formed by ash and 70% by blocks, with larger fragments accumulating on the margins of each flow deposit. The pyroclastic flow deposits contain lithics from several sources, as well as pumice. Pumice mostly accumulated on the surface of the flows, and individual stones are up to 30 cm wide. Lithic blocks are up to 3 m thick. The total volume of these pyroclastic flows is about 0.06 km3.</p><br>
<p>There is a pronounced morphology characterized by a channel upslope and snout-like toes downslope. Flow surfaces display pronounced fractures with a V profile, which developed a year after the eruption. The pyroclastic flow surfaces subsided after the eruption, with pulses of faster subsidence coinciding with the 1995 Antofagasta earthquake and the 2007 Tocopilla earthquake.</p><br>
<p>The flows were strongly erosive, extracting rocks and material from the bedrock, even far away from the vent. Noticeable erosion occurred in the areas over which pyroclastic flows had passed, forming abrasion surfaces and removing loose detritus from the ground.</p><br>
<p>These flows took a long time to cool down; in the Quebrada Tumbres, they had not cooled down completely by December 1993. Additional surfaces were covered by ash cloud surges, reaching thicknesses of no more than 5 cm on the sides of the pyroclastic flows. In some parts of the edifice, ejecta formed layers thick enough to undergo landsliding. The deposits and small structures, such as levees and lobes, were conserved by the dry climate in the region.</p><br>
<p>The ash from the volcano was carried by western wind towards Argentina and the Atlantic Ocean. Ash fall in Tucuman and Santiago del Estero was intense enough that traffic ground to a halt. Tephra fall from this eruption was recorded in Argentina, including in Buenos Aires, 1,500 km away, and in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Ash from this eruption was identified in ice cores from Illimani. Over 0.1 mm of ash fell over a surface area of over 850,000 km&sup2;. Larger particles fell closer to the volcano, while smaller particles were carried farther.</p><br>
<p>This eruption was the most significant eruption of Lascar in the last 9,000 years, with a volcanic explosivity index of 4 and a duration of 32 hours. It caused noticeable changes in the morphology of the volcano, including the formation of a new fracture along the summit craters; however, the summit craters themselves were not heavily altered. The eruption released about 400,000 t of sulfur dioxide, about half the quantity released by the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, and was sufficient to cause a noticeable increase in atmospheric opacity. The Quebrada Tumbre was blocked, and its water chemistry noticeably altered, by the eruption. About 900,000 t of gypsum was deposited in the drainages around the volcano, forming a significant supply of sulfur in the region.</p><br>
<p>The eruption claimed no fatalities, however it did lead to water pollution in the region, including increases in cadmium, copper and lead concentrations in local rivers. An increase of mercury from the eruption was detected as far as Laguna del Plata, Argentina. The 1993 eruption was followed by a significant increase in the fluorine content of plants covered by the ash. Regulatory limits on concentrations of other elements in water were also exceeded, although only temporarily.</p><br>
<h3>Post-1993 activity</h3><br>
<p>The eruption record at Lascar becomes more irregular after the 1993 eruption. During April 1993, a new lava dome formed in the crater, reaching a diameter of 380 m. It started to shrink again by May. On 17 December 1993, another explosion created an eruption column 8 - high. By 28 December, the dome had subsided completely in the centre, leaving only its margins. Subsequently, a number of fumaroles were active around the crater. Explosive eruptions, accompanied by the formation of eruption columns reaching heights of several kilometres, sometimes leading to ash fall in Jujuy, Argentina, occurred on 27 February 1994; in July 1994, November 1994, and March 1995; and on 10 May, 20 July and 18 October 1996. During the July 1995 eruption, subsidence was noted on satellite images of the inside of the central crater. The collapse structures during this activity were larger than those noted in previous activity, possibly because the April 1993 eruption had emptied part of the system. Otherwise, activity between 1993 and 2000 was not accompanied by deformation of the edifice.</p><br>
<p>An eruption in July 2000 was seen from Chuquicamata, and the noise was audible as far as San Antonio de los Cobres, 160 km away. The eruption lasted for two hours and formed a 10 - eruption column. An ash plume was carried 660 km east. Three eruptions in October 2002 formed ash columns that rose 500 -, while an explosion in December 2003 created a column 400 - high. No lava domes were recorded in the crater during that period.</p><br>
<p>Further activity occurred in May 2005, with a 8 - ash cloud, and in April 2006. An eruption commenced at 11:35 local time on 18 April 2006. This explosion was strong enough to rattle windows in the school at Talabre. The 18 April eruption was seen from the El Abra copper mine 220 km away and resulted in ash fall north-northeast from the volcano. Four eruptions occurred at 15:20, 17:22, 19:00 and 21:00 UTC, forming eruption columns reaching altitudes of 10 km. The next day, additional explosions occurred at 15:04, 15:05 and 17:39 UTC, with a maximum column height of 7 km. A video taken by the Chilean Air Force on 20 April showed a 50 m pit in the floor of the main crater. During the following days, additional explosions generated columns up to 3 km high, with little ash production. The eruption ended around 15:32 on 20 April, although some explosions occurred in the following days. Other eruptions were recorded in November 2006 and July 2007.</p><br>
<p>Weak eruptions, characterized by earthquakes and the release of plumes, occurred in February–March 2012 and March–April 2013. Between April and June 2013, glow was observed at the summit, accompanied by the occasional release of gray clouds. Glowing was also reported in October and November 2013. The last eruption, on 30 October 2015, created a 2,500 m column of ash that prompted a raise in the local volcano alert level. Thermal anomalies from this eruption persisted into 2017 but with a tendency to decrease in number, accompanied by persistent degassing.</p><br>
<h2>Monitoring and threats</h2><br>
<p>Because of the volcano&#39;s remote location, much information on its activity comes from remote sensing. In addition, occasional reconnaissance flights, seismographic monitoring, and infrequent visits to the volcano occur. The Observatorio Volcanológico de los Andes del Sur in Temuco also employs webcams to watch Lascar.</p><br>
<p>Lascar&#39;s activity has been monitored by Thematic Mapper, which has been used to monitor volcanic activity since 1985, when hot spots were observed on Lascar. The eruptions of April 1993 and September 1986 were both preceded by a reduction of thermal radiation observed by Thematic Mapper.</p><br>
<p>Seismic activity occurs at Lascar. Research has indicated peculiar patterns, including so called "rapid-fire" events on a background of continuous activity, as well as the occurrence of long-period earthquakes; here and in other volcanoes, this kind of seismic activity is associated with intense fumarolic activity that occurs in the absence of outright eruptions. Harmonic tremor has been recorded at Lascar, perhaps caused by a hydrothermal system. Such tremors may be produced by the movement of liquid materials in the volcano. A number of earthquakes were recorded in early February 2012. Between January 2014 and June 2016, about 2–4 volcano-tectonic earthquakes per month were recorded. Long-period earthquakes with magnitudes not exceeding 1.3 were also recorded, with a maximum of 209 events noted in May 2015.</p><br>
<p>Explosive eruptions and ash falls are the major threat to humans from Lascar. The towns of Tumbres and Talabre may be affected by pyroclastic flows, and ash falls can occur east of the volcano. Such ash falls could potentially hit the towns of San Pedro de Atacama, Talabre and Toconao as well as the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory and the San Pedro de Atacama–Paso de Jama–Jujuy international road. Past eruptions caused ash fall in Argentina and disruption of air travel. The town of Talabre was moved for safety reasons, and ballistic blocks ejected by the volcano are a threat to mountaineers and scientists working on Lascar. Sector collapse and lahars have occurred in the past, but are unlikely to be present-day hazards. The National Geology and Mining Service of Chile publishes a volcano alert level for Lascar.</p><br>
<p>Heavy metal exposure is a problem for the region. High quantities of arsenic have been observed in local crops. Thallium from the volcano is a pollution hazard in the Talabre area. High nickel concentrations in crops from Talabre appear to be caused by volcanic activity as well.</p><br>
<p>The Solitario is a large geologic formation in Big Bend Ranch State Park in West Texas. When viewed from above, it suggests an impact crater; though it is actually the eroded remains of a laccolith. The approximate center of the Solitario is located 56.8 km east southeast of Presidio, Texas, just west of the line dividing Brewster County, Texas and Presidio County, Texas. The formation covers a circular area of approximately 135 km&sup2;. The geology of the Solitario is complex. In 1988 the state of Texas purchased the property containing the Solitario and created Big Bend Ranch State Park.</p><br>
<p>The formation lies in the Chihuahuan Desert ecoregion of the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Solitario is a structural dome developed in Paleozoic and Cretaceous rocks above an Eocene granite laccolith intrusion. The dome is associated with radial rhyolite to trachyte dikes and sills and erupted ash flow tuffs. The 16 km diameter dome contains a 6 by 2 km volcanic cauldera filled with collapse breccia, tuff, and trachyte lava.</p><br>
<p>The Paleozoic rocks of the dome consist of a 2.6 km thick section of intensely folded Cambrian through Early Pennsylvanian sediments. The Paleozoic rocks were deformed and thrust into the area from the southeast during the Ouachita orogeny. Following the Permian uplift and erosion during most of the Mesozoic was followed by deposition of Cretaceous carbonate rocks which correlate with the Cretaceous of the Gulf Coast. The area was uplifted by the Laramide orogeny during latest Cretaceous. Following the Eocene intrusive and volcanic events of the Solitario, the area was partially covered by volcanic rocks from the adjacent Bofecillos volcanic center to the west of the area during the Oligocene and early Miocene. Erosion and downcutting following the Pleistocene deepening of the Rio Grande to the southwest and south have produced the current topographic expression of the area.</p><br>
<p>Located about 3 km east of the central business district, Osu is a city in central Accra, Ghana, known for its busy commercial, restaurant and nightlife activity. It is locally known as the "West End" of Accra. Bounded to the south by the Gulf of Guinea, Osu&#39;s western boundary is the Independence Avenue. Ring Road separates Osu from the northern district of Labone.</p><br>
<p>Owing to its establishment as a settlement around the Danish fort of Christiansborg in the 17th century, Osu offers a mix of houses dating from the early 20th century (both low-rise apartment blocks and detached houses) to modern office towers. Ringway Estates, a gated residential community between Gamel Abdul Nasser Avenue and Cantonments Road is located in the western section of Osu.</p><br>
<p>The main thoroughfare, Cantonments Road (colloquially known as Oxford Street) features large supermarkets and appliance shops, and is renowned for its food joints and lively nightlife. At its southern end is the site of the 17th-century Fort Christiansborg, a former Danish colonial fort, which formerly housed the seat of government, and relocated to The Flagstaff House near the 37 Military Hospital after it was reconstructed by Former President, John Kufuor.</p><br>
<h2>Osu-RE</h2><br>
<p>Osu-RE located on "Oxford Street" is arguably the liveliest part of Accra and Ghana as a whole, the most preferred hang-out spot for tourists visiting the city. With most of the country&#39;s entertaining places located in the Osu-Re, the town hosts people with diverse cultures and entertainment from different countries.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The head office of Starbow is in Osu.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks/Places of interest</h2><br>
<h3>Dining</h3><br>
<p>Monsoon</p><br>
<p>Frankie&#39;s Restaurant</p><br>
<p>Bella Roma</p><br>
<p>Container</p><br>
<p>Osu Blue Gate</p><br>
<p>Osu Night market</p><br>
<p>Regal Chinese Restaurant</p><br>
<p>Papaye Fast Food</p><br>
<p>Chics & Ribs</p><br>
<p>18th Lane Resto</p><br>
<p>Xigi&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Rockafellas</p><br>
<p>Jeggous Place</p><br>
<p>Purple Pub</p><br>
<p>NourishLAB Smoothy&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Eyes Right</p><br>
<p>Night life</p><br>
<p>Hide Out</p><br>
<h3>Entertainment</h3><br>
<p>Honeysuckle Pub</p><br>
<p>Firefly Lounge</p><br>
<p>Baze Lounge and Bar</p><br>
<p>Don&#39;s Place</p><br>
<p>Shisha Lounge</p><br>
<p>Makumba night club</p><br>
<p>Piccadilly Casino</p><br>
<p>Venus Cocktail Bar</p><br>
<p>Duplex</p><br>
<p>Calabash night club</p><br>
<p>Republic Bar and Grill</p><br>
<p>Epo Sport</p><br>
<p>Hot Gossip</p><br>
<p>Sai Wine and Champagne Cafe</p><br>
<p>Purple Pub</p><br>
<p>Eyes Right</p><br>
<h3>Shopping</h3><br>
<p>Oxford Street Mall</p><br>
<p>Koala Shopping Center</p><br>
<p>Lara Mart</p><br>
<p>Sardis Lake is a 98,520 acre reservoir on the Little Tallahatchie River in Lafayette, Panola, and Marshall counties, Mississippi. Sardis Lake is impounded by Sardis Dam, located 9 mi southeast of the town of Sardis. It is approximately an hour drive from Memphis, Tennessee. The dam is 15,300 ft long, has an average height of 97 ft, and a maximum height of 117 ft.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Sardis Dam was the first of the Yazoo River headwaters projects to be built by the federal government for flood control. Authorization for the project came when President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Flood Control Act of 1936. Construction took four years and required thousands of men to clear 14 mi along the Little Tallahatchie River, which was characterized by dense woods and undergrowth, and meandering sloughs.</p><br>
<p>The dam was constructed using a "hydraulic fill" technique that required soil to be dredged from below the dam site and pumped to form the earth fill, which forms the majority of the dam. The USA Army Corps of Engineers built and operated the "Pontotoc", a special dredge powered by two 3,000 hp electric motors to accomplish this task. The 425 acre "Lower Lake" on the downstream side of Sardis Dam was created by the dredging operation. It has numerous recreation facilities, including John W. Kyle State Park. Mississippi Highway 315 splits while crossing the dam, with one route crossing the top and the other half crossing the base.</p><br>
<p>Sardis Lake has a maximum storage capacity of 1,512,000 acre-feet of water. The lake is gradually drawn down during the fall and winter months to a "conservation pool" of 9,800 acre. This permits spring rains across the lakes 1,545 square miles watershed to fill the reservoir without flooding downstream. Since the dam became operational, the dams emergency spillway has been overtopped only three times by high water - in 1973, 1983 and 1991. The lake&#39;s typical "recreation pool" is 32,500 acre.</p><br>
<p>The lake is popular with anglers and has a reputation for its abundant bass and crappie. Other recreation activities include hunting, camping, boating, skiing, swimming and picnicking.</p><br>
<h2>Marina</h2><br>
<p>The Sardis Lake Marina services the lake with access to fuel docks, 140 wet slips (both covered and uncovered), a restaurant, and a ship store. They offer rental boats as well as rental skis, tubes, and knee/wake boards.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cook  is a high peak on the Yukon Territory-Alaska border, in the Saint Elias Mountains of North America. It is approximately 15 miles southwest of Mount Vancouver and 35 miles east-southeast of Mount Saint Elias. It forms one of the corners of the jagged border, which is defined to run in straight lines between the major peaks. The same border also separates Kluane National Park in the Yukon Territory from Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve in Alaska.</p><br>
<p>Like many peaks of the Saint Elias Mountains, Mount Cook is a massive peak, with a large rise above local terrain. For example, the southwest face drops 10,000 feet (3,048 m) to the Marvine Glacier in approximately 4 miles (6.4 km). It is also quite close to tidewater: Disenchantment Bay is less than 18 miles (29 km) from the summit.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cook was first climbed in 1953. It is not often climbed due to its remoteness, the size of the mountain, the typically poor weather (due to its proximity to the ocean), and the fact that it is not one of the highest peaks of the range. In fact there are only four references to the peak in the complete index of the American Alpine Journal.</p><br>
<p>West Point Lake is a man-made reservoir impounded by the West Point Dam, a dam built by the USA Army Corps of Engineers on the Chattahoochee River that provides flood control and hydroelectric power. It also provides a reservoir for water to aid the navigation of the lower Chattahoochee. The reservoir extends for about 35 mi along the Chattahoochee River near the Alabama-Georgia state boundary.</p><br>
<p>West Point Lake also contains recreational areas surrounding the lake. The east bank of the lake includes recreational areas such as R. Shaefer Heard Park and Long Cane Park, which contains a boat launching area hidden deep in the woods west of US 29. This park is named for the former unincorporated community which today consists only of intersections with US 29 at Gabbettville Road and Lower Glass Bridge Road, including a local gas station/bait and tackle shop. Parklands on the Lower Glass Bridge Road side of the lake include Maple Creek Park, Potts Road Park and the Earl Cook Access area. The north end of the lake along Georgia State Route 109 includes the proposed Wehalkee Service Area, the Whitetail Ridge Campground, Horace King Access area and Pyne Road Park.</p><br>
<p>On the west bank in Alabama, recreation areas surround Chambers CR 212 and consist of the Hardley Creek Recreation Area, West Overlook Area, Burnt Village Park, West Lake Recreation Area, all of which are officially addressed as being in Lanett. Amity Park and the Amity Campground can be accessed along CR 394. The northwest side of the lake includes Veasey Creek Recreation Area, which can only be accessed from Chambers CRs 264 and 463 and Oakland Park which can only be accessed along Chambers CR 263.</p><br>
<p>Mount Natazhat is a high peak of the Saint Elias Mountains, of Alaska, United States, just west of the border with the Yukon Territory of Canada. It lies on the northern edge of the range, south of the White River and north of the Klutlan Glacier.</p><br>
<p>Mount Natazhat is a little-noticed peak; however it is a very large peak in terms of rise above local terrain. It rises 9,000 ft in less than 7 mi above the lowlands to the north, and 7,500 ft in about 4 mi above the Klutlan Glacier to the south.</p><br>
<p>The current standard route is that of the second ascent along the northeast ridge. This route was first climbed in 1996 by D. Hart, P. Barry, H. Hunt, and D. Lucey. It is moderately serious by Alaskan standards (Alaska Grade 3+), with some steep ice and corniced ridges.</p><br>
<p>Mount Natazhat is not often climbed due to its remote location and the fact that it is not a particularly high peak, especially by Alaskan standards. (Also, it is not even a fourteener.) In fact, the only mention of the peak in the complete Index of the American Alpine Journal is for the 1996 ascent noted above.</p><br>
<p>__TOC__</p><br>
<p>Arkabutla Lake is a reservoir on the Coldwater River in the USA state of Mississippi. The dam is located on Arkabutla Dam Rd approximately 4 mi north of the small community of Arkabutla. It is one of four Flood Damage Reduction reservoirs in northern Mississippi, with the others being Sardis, Enid and Grenada Lakes. With an annual visitation exceeding 2 million people, Arkabutla Lake accommodates a wide variety of recreational interest throughout the entire year. The Arkabutla Lake project includes 57,250 acre of land and water. The dam is 11,500 ft long with an average height of 67 ft. There are 37,700 acre of land at the project which are open to the public for hunting.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to the website, after a series of disastrous floods during the mid-19th century and early 20th century, high priority was given to flood control projects. The worst flood in modern history of the Lower Mississippi Valley occurred in 1927. The damage and destruction caused by the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 was a catalyst for a comprehensive program to be developed for flood control along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The USA Army Corps of Engineers became the planners, designers and builders of the flood control projects. These projects were made possible by Congress passing the Flood Control Act of 1937.</p><br>
<p>Engineers determined the headwaters of the Yazoo River contributed to or caused much of the flooding that occurred in the Mississippi Delta region. In addition to the construction of levees along the Yazoo River, four flood control reservoirs were constructed in north Mississippi as part of the Yazoo Basin Headwater Project. Arkabutla Dam, the second of the dams to be built, was constructed on the Coldwater River.</p><br>
<p>In 1942, the USA Government moved the town of Coldwater and approximately 700 residents, at a cost of $250,000, to its present location 1 mi south of the original site. Today a monument dedicated to the old town of Coldwater stands just west of the Coldwater exit off Interstate 55. A few remnants of the old town are visible, but a majority of the site remains underwater year round.</p><br>
<p>When completed, the Yazoo Headwater Project will protect 1,209,000 acre of land against flooding and will partially protect another 303,000 acre. Benefits of the Headwater Project are reduced flooding around the cities of Greenwood, Yazoo City, Belzoni, and other smaller communities within the Yazoo River Basin. It has led to increased agricultural and industrial productivity because more land is available for these purposes. As a result, the region’s national and international markets for produce have greatly increased, and families have benefited from the growing job market.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>In the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou?, Everett McGill&#39;s treasure is buried at a cabin located in a valley that is flooded during the construction of Arkabutla Reservoir. A brief still shot of a newspaper dated Tuesday, July 13, 1937 has a headline which reads "T.V.A. FINALIZING PLANS FOR FLOODING OF ARKABUTLA VALLEY".</p><br>
<p>Ballanger Creek is a 4.7 mi tributary of the Mullica River in southern New Jersey in the United States. The name is derived from "Belangee," a family of French Huguenots who were early settlers in the area.</p><br>
<p>It arises in Little Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey, to the west of Tuckerton, and flows south. Crossing under U.S. Route 9, it forms the boundary between Ocean County and Burlington County for the remainder of its course. Passing through abandoned cranberry bogs on the eastern side of a parcel of Bass River State Forest, it enters the tidal marshes of the Mullica, where it is fed by Lower Pasture Creek and World&#39;s End Creek. The channel of Mathis Thorofare connects it to Broad Creek to the west. Just below, it meets Fish Creek, and then the larger Winter Creek just before emptying into the Mullica.</p><br>
<h2>Biodiversity</h2><br>
<p>The rare Marsh Rattlesnake Master (Eryngium aquaticum var. aquaticum) and Pine Barren Boneset (Eupatorium resinosum) grow in the abandoned bogs along its course.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>*Winter Creek</p><br>
<p>*Fish Creek</p><br>
<p>*Mathis Thorofare</p><br>
<p>*World&#39;s End Creek</p><br>
<p>*Lower Pasture Creek</p><br>
<p>The Thredbo River, a perennial river of the Snowy River catchment, is located in the Snowy Mountains region of New South Wales, Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Course and features</h2><br>
<p>The Thredbo River rises below South Rams Head, near Mount Leo within the Kosciuszko National Park. The river flows generally adjacent to the Alpine Way, west and northwest near Dead Horse Gap, then generally north, passing through the village of Thredbo, joined by four tributaries including the Little Thredbo River, before emptying into Lake Jindabyne, impounded by Jindabyne Dam. Within Lake Jindabyne, the river reaches its confluence with the Snowy River.</p><br>
<p>The river descends 649 m over its 40 km course.</p><br>
<p>The flow of the river is impacted by alpine conditions; with high flows during spring as a result of snow melt. Meanwhile, during winter, the river is subject to snow and ice conditions.</p><br>
<p>ThredboDiggings.jpgThredbo River near the Diggings campground in Kosciuszko National Park.</p><br>
<p>AU Bullocks-Flat.jpgConfluence of Thredbo River (R) with the Little Thredbo River (L) at Bullocks Flat.</p><br>
<p>ThredboRiver-TVT-Bridge.jpgBridge over Thredbo River for Thredbo Valley Track</p><br>
<p>ThredboRiver-VillageEast.jpgThredbo River at eastern edge of Thredbo Village</p><br>
<p>ThredboRiver-VillageWest1.jpgThredbo River upstream of Thredbo Village</p><br>
<p>ThredboRiver-VillageWest2.jpgThredbo River upstream of Thredbo Village</p><br>
<p>Grinnell Glacier is in the heart of Glacier National Park in the USA state of Montana. The glacier is named for George Bird Grinnell, an early American conservationist and explorer, who was also a strong advocate of ensuring the creation of Glacier National Park. The glacier is in the Lewis Range and rests on the north flank of Mount Gould at an altitude averaging 7,000 ft, in the Many Glacier region of the park.</p><br>
<p>The glacier has been one of the most photographed glaciers in the park and many of these photographs date back to the mid 19th century. When compared with images taken over subsequent years, the glacier has obviously retreated substantially. In 1850, at the end of what has been referred to as the Little Ice Age, Grinnell Glacier measured 710 acre, including the area of The Salamander Glacier, an ice apron or shelf glacier that used to be attached to Grinnell, but is now separate. By 1993, Grinnell Glacier measured 220 acre and The Salamander measured 57 acre.</p><br>
<p>Between 1966 and 2005, Grinnell Glacier lost almost 40 percent of its acreage.</p><br>
<p>Glaciologists have predicted that if carbon dioxide levels increase at a worst-case scenario, all the glaciers in the park, including Grinnell, will disappear by the year 2030. However, under a modest increase in overall carbon dioxide levels, some glaciers will remain until the year 2277.</p><br>
<p>Gem Glacier, one of the smallest remaining glaciers in the park, is located on the Garden Wall above Grinnell. Repeat photography taken between the years 1938 and 2009 (as shown below) show that Grinnell Glacier has retreated significantly over that period. The Salamander and Gem Glaciers have shown little change in area over the same period of time. The Salamander receives its name for its shape and its coloring, which comes from the serratia bacteria that grows on it.</p><br>
<p>The glacier can be reached after a 6 mi hike from a trailhead beginning at Swiftcurrent Lake. The trail has an altitude gain of just over 1,600 ft, with the majority of that in the second half of the hike.</p><br>
<p>The Garden Wall is a steep alpine area within Glacier National Park well known during the summer months to be heavily covered in dozens of species of flowering plants and shrubs. Located along the west side of the Continental divide and extending northward from Logan Pass, the Garden Wall can be traversed via the popular Highline Trail and for a distance of over 5 mi to the Granite Park Chalet. The Going-to-the-Sun Road also passes through portions of the Garden Wall northwest of Logan Pass. The Weeping Wall is a short stretch of the Going-to-the-Sun Road where water cascades over the Garden Wall to the roadway below. The Garden Wall is an arête or rock spine that separates the Many Glacier region of the park from Lake McDonald valley.</p><br>
<p>Lytle Creek, California, is an approximately 18 mi stream in southwestern San Bernardino County near the city of San Bernardino. It is a tributary of Warm Creek, a tributary of the Santa Ana River. The Mormon settlers of San Bernardino named the stream "Lytle Creek" after their leader, Captain Andrew Lytle.</p><br>
<h2>Lytle Creek Watershed</h2><br>
<p>Lytle Creek flows through the eastern San Gabriel Mountains and has three forks, the North, Middle and South forks. The source of the creek is at the confluence of the North Fork and Middle Fork Lytle Creek, just west of the town of Lytle Creek, California {{coord|34|14|24|N|117|29|55|W|display=inline}}. South Fork Lytle Creek joins Lytle Creek soon afterward on the right{{coord|34|14|04|N|117|29|39|W|display=inline}}. As the creek</p><br>
<p>emerges from the mountains, about where Glen Helen Parkway crosses the creek {{coord|34|11|24|N|117|25|58|W|display=inline}}, the Lytle Creek Wash begins {{coord|34|11|24|N|117|25|59|W|display=inline}}. At the lower end of the wash {{coord|34|06|28|N|117|20|00|W|display=inline}}, there is the old Lower Lytle Creek channel, that has been artificially canalized which splits off to the east, while an additional artificial diversion channel, the smaller Lytle Creek Channel {{coord|34|05|39|N|117|19|29|W|display=inline}}, continues southeastward to rejoin the waters of Lytle Creek in the reach of Warm Creek</p><br>
<p>near its mouth at Knoll Park {{coord|34|4|27|N|117|18|13|W|display=inline}}. The lower creek has its conjunction with the artificial channel of Warm Creek, 1 mile before Warm Creek joins the Santa Ana River. Below this conjunction, the Lytle Creek Channel merges with the Warm Creek channel at Knoll Park just before it joins the river .</p><br>
<p>Several moderate-to-large-sized cities (Fontana, Rialto, Colton, and San Bernardino-the largest) are built on the ancient alluvial fan sediments left behind by Lytle Creek.</p><br>
<p>*Lytle Creek</p><br>
<p>** -- mouth of Lytle Creek Wash, head of artificial channels, confluence with the Santa Ana River</p><br>
<p>**Cajon Wash</p><br>
<p>***Cable Creek</p><br>
<p>***Lone Pine Creek</p><br>
<p>***Crowder Creek</p><br>
<p>** -- head of Lytle Creek Wash, mouth of the upper reach of Lytle Creek</p><br>
<p>**Grapevine Canyon Creek</p><br>
<p>**Meyer Canyon Creek</p><br>
<p>** -- Miller Narrows</p><br>
<p>**South Fork Lytle Creek</p><br>
<p>***Bonita Creek</p><br>
<p>**Middle Fork Lytle Creek</p><br>
<p>**North Fork Lytle Creek</p><br>
<p>***Coldwater Canyon Creek</p><br>
<p>***Paiute Canyon</p><br>
<p>***Dog Bone Canyon</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectric Power</h2><br>
<p>Southern California Edison has a 600-kW hydroelectric plant on the stream at Miller Narrows at an elevation of 2795 feet{{coord|34|13|56|N|117|29|11|W|display=inline}}. It is a run-of-the-river plant. A diversion dam sends the water through a turbine, which is returned to the streambed further downstream.</p><br>
<p>Not to be confused with the Black Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The Black Mountain (Y Mynydd Du) is a mountain range in South and West Wales, straddling the county boundary between Carmarthenshire and Powys and forming the westernmost range of the Brecon Beacons National Park. Its highest point is Fan Brycheiniog at 802 metres or 2,631 ft. The Black Mountain also forms a part of the recently created Fforest Fawr Geopark. https://web.archive.org/web/20081204044039/http://www.breconbeacons.org/geopark</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The Black Mountain should not be confused with the Black Mountains in the east of the National Park, nor with a 703 m summit in the Black Mountains that is confusingly also called Black Mountain. In his description of a Blak Montayne, the antiquarian John Leland refers to a massif extending between Carmarthen and Monmouth i.e. what is now considered to be the Brecon Beacons in the wider modern sense of that term, thus also including the Black Mountains and the intervening high ground of Fforest Fawr.</p><br>
<p>The term "Carmarthen Fans" is sometimes used inaccurately to describe a large part of this massif, whereas it should be restricted to the peaks along the northern escarpment, west of the border with Powys (formerly Brecknockshire), beyond which (to the east) is Fan Brycheiniog. The term thus includes Picws Du and Waun Lefrith, both of which lie to the west of Fan Foel and Fan Brycheiniog.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The range stretches approximately from Ammanford in the south-west to Sennybridge in the north-east. The larger part of these hills is formed from Old Red Sandstone, though bands of Carboniferous Limestone and of Twrch Sandstone (or Millstone Grit) are important landscape-forming rocks in the south and west of the range owing to their greater resistance to erosion. The most resistant of all are the Plateau beds, which form a protective cap over most of the range. They also form steep cliffs just below the edge of the escarpment. The rocks are of the Devonian, in common with their companion peaks of the Brecon Beacons to the east. The area was glaciated during the ice ages and a number of fresh moraines are to be found beneath the spectacular north and east facing sandstone scarps in the north-east of the range, especially below Fan Hir. There are smaller moraines lying immediately below the cliffs of Waun Lefrith and Picws Du.</p><br>
<p>The lakes below the escarpment of Llyn y Fan Fawr and Llyn y Fan Fach are also remnants of glacial action, having been created by other moraines blocking drainage by forming deep hollows below the cliffs.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>There are many surviving remains, especially prehistoric and Roman, in the area. They include the castras at Mynydd Bach Trecastell and a Roman road crossing Fforest Fawr as Sarn Helen. There are numerous menhirs, round barrows and several small stone circles. An especially famous circle occurs on the banks of the River Tawe below Fan Hir, and is known as Cerrig Duon, or "black stones". There is a standing stone outside the circle nearby, known as Maen Mawr, with two smaller stones forming a small avenue. There is also evidence of human settlements, hut circles and agriculture. Recent excavation of a cairn or round barrow on Fan Foel showed it to be of early Bronze Age in date (circa 2000 BC) and there is a very similar unexcavated round barrow on Picws Du. The excavation at Fan Foel indicated that the moorland was well-wooded in Bronze Age Britain owing to a warmer climate than at present, with much of the present moorland covered by hazel scrub with oak at lower heights. Most current moorland elsewhere in Britain was in a similar condition, and extensive Bronze Age remains have been found there too. Examples include Dartmoor, Exmoor, Bodmin Moor, much of the upland Pennines and upland Welsh moorland in the centre and north of the country. All such moorlands are tree-less in their upper parts, in their current sub-arctic state.</p><br>
<h2>Drainage</h2><br>
<p>The massif is drained by a number of rivers which flow down the southern dip-slopes of the massif from its main ridge. In contrast the northerly directed streams tend to be shorter and steeper. The upper parts of the range are largely moorland and covered with peat bog, some of which is degrading judging by the partly destroyed sections of peat bank near Llyn y Fan Fawr. The rivers Usk and Tawe have their sources on the northern and eastern flanks of the range whilst the smaller Loughor arises at the western end of the range. Significant right bank tributaries of the Tawe such as the River Giedd and the Afon Twrch, as well as the River Amman, a tributary of the Loughor, are the principal southerly-directed watercourses. Two left-bank tributaries of the River Towy, the River Cennen and the Afon Sawdde, drain the northwestern slopes of the Black Mountain.</p><br>
<p>The range is noted for its two large glacial lakes which sit directly below the main escarpment, being much larger than the small lake of similar origin which occurs below Pen y Fan.</p><br>
<h3>Llyn y Fan Fach</h3><br>
<p>Llyn y Fan Fach (Welsh: lake of the small peak) is the smaller and more westerly of two natural lakes within the Black Mountain. It is enclosed within a rock hollow formed as a result of glacial action during the ice ages. It is about 500 yards long and 200 yards wide, and roughly oriented east-west. It is drained by the Afon Sawdde which cuts through a glacial moraine which in part forms a natural dam. A small artificial dam was constructed in the 1930s to divert some of its waters to boost Llanelli&#39;s water supply. Llyn y Fan Fach is associated with the Lady of the Lake legend.</p><br>
<p>The lake can easily be reached by foot from the car park on the water board access road near Llanddeusant, although the road to the car park is poorly signposted, and in very poor condition for car travel.</p><br>
<h3>Llyn y Fan Fawr</h3><br>
<p>The lake Llyn y Fan Fawr or lake of the large peak, which lies below Fan Brycheiniog towards the eastern end of the mountain. It is of similar glacial origin to its westerly neighbour, but is slightly larger. It is about 600 yards long and 200 yards wide, being roughly oriented north south. It is drained by a stream known as Nant y Llyn (Welsh: stream of the lake), whose waters flow into the River Tawe. The surface of Llyn y Fan Fawr lies at about 1980 feet or 605 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The lake can be reached on foot by an approximately 1.7 mile (2.7 km) walk across the moor from the minor Trecastle to Abercraf road, where there is a small space for cars to park. There is another small car park a short distance away to the south and next to the same road at the end of another footpath to the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Parts of the massif are over 5 km or over 3 miles from the nearest public road. Indeed, those roads are mostly very minor single track roads with a few passing places, making the centre of the range even more inaccessible. There are several small car parks on the minor roads crossing the range, and a larger car park on the minor road from Llanddeusant village to the base of the access road to Llyn y Fan Fach. Virtually the entire massif consists of land mapped as open country and hence legally accessible to the public on foot under the provisions of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000.</p><br>
<p>In addition the range is crossed from north to south by a number of long bridleways which may be used by mountain bikers and horseriders though long sections of them are very rough and indistinct. The Beacons Way traverses the range roughly from east to west. Increased use of certain sections of path by walkers in recent years has resulted in accelerated erosion, a problem exacerbated by the sometimes thin, gravelly soils and the high rainfall, and has prompted repairs by the Brecon Beacons National Park Authority. There are numerous peat bogs on the high and middle ground, although some are bridged by stone pavements. There is a well graded stone staircase which carries the Beacons Way path from Llyn y Fan Fawr up the escarpment to Fan Brycheiniog in the centre of the range.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>There are numerous different species of bird in the area, and they include the red kite, common buzzard, kestrel, carrion crow, common raven and skylark to name a few of the most obvious residents. The red kite was previously restricted to this and adjoining areas in South Wales such as Mynydd Mallaen owing to persecution by gamekeepers in the rest of the country, but has since been introduced widely in southern Britain, such as the Chilterns. The kestrel and buzzard are widely distributed, but the raven is restricted to the higher mountains. There is a wide distribution of mammals such as field voles, foxes and badgers as well as many songbirds. The skylark is plentiful due to the extensive rough pasture present below the main peaks which allows ground nesting of the species. Pied wagtails are common near the streams and torrents running from the hill tops.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural associations</h2><br>
<p>The Black Mountain is generally considered to be one of the wildest regions of Wales and is associated with numerous myths such as the Arthurian legend of the Lady of the Lake and Twrch Trwyth. More recent events are commemorated in prose and verse, e.g. From the Mist to Heaven written after a tragedy played out on these moors in May 1904. Cribarth on its southeastern margin is sometimes known locally as the Sleeping Giant, after the appearance of its profile from Cwm Tawe to the south.</p><br>
<p>St. Thomas Island  or Zmiyski ostrov ), is a Bulgarian island in the Black Sea, 15 km south of Sozopol. It has an area of 0.012 km&sup2;  and is one of a very few places in Bulgaria where wild cacti grow. The Opuntia cacti were brought from the Botanical Garden in Bratislava, Slovakia and planted by the royal botanist Ivan Buresh on the orders of Tsar Boris III in 1933. They have covered most of the island since then.</p><br>
<p>St. Thomas Island is named after a chapel dedicated to Saint Thomas that once existed on it. Snake Island, the alternate name, refers to the abundant grey water snakes that inhabit it, feeding on fish. The island is part of the Ropotamo nature reserve and lies 0.2 nautical miles southeast of Humata Foreland in Arkutino Bay.</p><br>
<p>Åraksfjorden is a lake in the municipality of Bygland in Aust-Agder county, Norway. The 11.96 km&sup2; lake is part of the Otra drainage basin. The northern part of the lake is fed directly by the river Otra. The southern part of the lake goes through a narrow channel which leads into the Byglandsfjorden. The villages of Frøysnes and Skåmedal are located along the western side of the lake and on the eastern side are the villages of Sandnes and Åraksbø. The Norwegian National Road 9 runs along the eastern side of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The name of the 32 km long lake was given because it is located near the village of Åraksbø. The central part of the lake is also called the Sandnesfjord and the southern part is also called the Blåfjord.</p><br>
<p>Ogge is a lake in the municipalities of Birkenes and Iveland in Aust-Agder county, Norway. It is located about 40 km north of the city of Kristiansand, just east of the villages of Vatnestrøm  and Oggevatn . The 6.71 km&sup2; lake includes about 360 islands and reefs. The overall length of the lake is approximately 16 km. The Sørlandsbanen railway line and the Norwegian County Road 405 both run along the west side of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Ogge is a place for canoeing and kayaking. It has a number of camping sites with restrooms and picnic facilities on many of the small islands. Very little of the shoreline is private property. On canoe trips, there are moose (Alces alces), beaver, and varied birdlife. Canoes can be rented locally.</p><br>
<p>Kilefjorden is a lake on the border of Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder counties in Norway. The lake is located on the border of the municipalities of Evje og Hornnes and Iveland  and Vennesla . The lake is part of the river Otra. The lake is located about 6 km west of the village of Birketveit in Iveland, about 2.5 km north of the village of Hægeland in Vennesla, and about 15 km south of the village of Hornnes in Evje og Hornnes.</p><br>
<p>The steamship Bjoren worked in this lake from 1866&ndash;1896 transporting people and items across the lake. In 1896, the boat was moved to the Byglandsfjorden. The Norwegian National Road 9 runs along the southwestern end of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Prior to 1950, the lake&#39;s outflow was at the waterfall Soga on the southeast end of the lake. In 1950, the Gåseflå dam was built further upstream creating the lake Gåseflåfjorden which adjoins the Kilefjorden at the same surface elevation so the waterfall is now underwater and it can only be seen when the lake Gåseflå is lowered for work on the power station.</p><br>
<h2>Media gallery</h2><br>
<p>9456 Parti ved Kile - no-nb digifoto 20160304 00063 bldsa L KK0142.jpgView of the lake in the late 1800s</p><br>
<p>9457 Parti ved Kile - no-nb digifoto 20160304 00064 bldsa L KK0143.jpgView of the lake in the late 1800s</p><br>
<p>1474 Kijile - no-nb digifoto 20160302 00135 bldsa L KK0233.jpgView of the lake between 1864 and 1889</p><br>
<p>Vennesla IMG 7521 kilefjorden kile lynghei 309m.JPGView along the Rv9 highway</p><br>
<p>Botsvatn or Bossvatn is a lake in the municipality of Bykle in Aust-Agder county, Norway. The 14.6 km long, narrow reservoir is located just to the southeast of the large lake Blåsjø and northeast of the lake Ytre Storevatnet. The lake holds water for the Brokke Hydroelectric Power Station, located in nearby Valle municipality. The water from the lake can flow out into the nearby river Otra, but only when water is released from the dam.</p><br>
<p>The village of Nordbygdi is located on the north shore of the lake, and the village of Bykle is located about 3 km to the east of the lake along the Norwegian National Road 9. The mountain Steinheii lies on the south shore of the lake and the mountain Strondefjell lies on the north side of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Byglandsfjorden is a lake in Aust-Agder county, Norway. The 32.79 km&sup2; lake lies on the river Otra, primarily in the municipality of Bygland, but the far southern tip of the lake extends into the neighboring municipality of Evje og Hornnes. The river flows out of the lake Åraksfjorden to the north and into the Byglandsfjorden through a narrow channel, and the southern end of the Byglandsfjorden is marked by a dam along the river. The villages of Byglandsfjord, Grendi, Longerak, Lauvdal, and Bygland are all located on the eastern shore of the lake along the Norwegian National Road 9. The western shore of the lake is much more sparsely populated, with County Road 304 following that shoreline.</p><br>
<p>The SS Bjoren is a wood-fueled steamboat that travels on the Byglandsfjorden in the summers between the villages of Ose (on the Åraksfjorden), Bygland, and Byglandsfjord. Prior to the opening of the roads along the shoreline, steamboat travel was the main method of transportation for those travelling north through Setesdal.</p><br>
<p>There is a special relict species of salmon that live in Byglandsfjorden, called bleke. These are salmon that spend their entire lives in freshwater.</p><br>
<p>The Col de Turini  is a high mountain pass in the Alps in the department of Alpes-Maritimes in France.</p><br>
<p>It lies near Sospel, between the communes of Moulinet and La Bollène-Vésubie in the Arrondissement of Nice.</p><br>
<p>It is famous for a stage of the Monte Carlo Rally which is held on the tight road with its many hairpin turns. Until a few years ago, the Col de Turini was also driven at night, with thousands of fans watching the "night of the long knives" as it was called, due to the strong high beam lights cutting through the night.</p><br>
<p>The Col de Turini has also featured three times in the Tour de France (1948, 1950 and 1973). The climb averages 7.2% over 15.3 km when approached from the East starting at the valley of the river Vésubie.</p><br>
<p>This pass was featured in the first episode of Top Gear series 10 when the presenters went in search of the greatest driving road in the world.</p><br>
<p>Bulla Regia is an archaeological site in north-western Tunisia, a former Roman city near modern Jendouba called officially Colonia Aelia Hadriana Augusta Bulla Regia. It is noted for its Hadrianic-era semi-subterranean housing, a protection from the fierce heat and effects of the sun. Many of the mosaic floors have been left in situ; others may be seen at the Bardo Museum, Tunis. There is also a small museum connected with the site.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>In the unique domus architecture developed in the city, a ground-level storey, open to the warming winter sun, stood above a subterranean level, built round a two-story atrium. Open-bottomed terracotta bottle-shapes were built into vaulting. Water sprinkled on the floors brought the colors of the mosaics to life while they provided cooling by evaporation.</p><br>
<p>In the House of the Hunt, the basilica, with an apse at its head, a transept and dependent spaces opening into what would be the nave if it were a church, has been instanced (Thébert) as an example of the conjunction between public architecture and the domus of the ruling class in the fourth century, spaces soon to be Christianized as churches and cathedrals.</p><br>
<p>The subtle colors and shading and the modelling of three-dimensional forms of the finest mosaics at Bulla Regia are not surpassed by any in North Africa, where the Roman art of mosaic floors reached its fullest development. The mosaic of a haloed Amphitrite (House of Amphitrite) is often illustrated (above, right).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>The Berber origins of Bulla Regia probably pre-dated its Punic culture: imported Greek ceramics of the fourth century BC have been found; it came under the hegemony of Carthage during the third century, when inscriptions reveal that the inhabitants venerated Baal Hammon and buried their dead in urns, Punic style. A capital from a temple of Tanit is preserved at the site&#39;s museum.</p><br>
<h3>Later history</h3><br>
<p>Broadly speaking, Bulla Regia was part of the territory conquered for Rome in 203 BC by Scipio Africanus, but in 156 BC it became the capital of the Numidian king Massinissa, who "recovered the lands of his ancestors", according to an inscription, and gave to the site its epithet Regia ("Royal"); later, one of his sons had a residence in the city. Under the Numidians, a regularized orthogonal grid street plan in the Hellenistic manner was imposed on at least part of the earlier irregular system of alleys and insulae (Thébaut). The Romans assumed direct control in 46 BC, when Julius Caesar organized the province of Africa Nova and rewarded the (perhaps simply neutral) conduct of Bulla Regia in the Civil Wars by making it a free city. Under Hadrian, it was refounded as Colonia Aelia Hadriana Augusta Bulla Regia, giving its citizens full Romanitas.</p><br>
<p>Its small amphitheatre, the subject of a reproach in a sermon of Augustine of Hippo, retains the crispness of its edges and steps because it lay buried until 1960–61. To this day, the Roman Catholic Church retains this site as a bishopric, a titular see, Bullensium Regiorum.</p><br>
<h3>Decline and destruction</h3><br>
<p>After its season of flourishing, Bulla Regia was slowly degraded under Byzantine rule. As elsewhere in the Late Empire, the local aristocracy found themselves in a position to increase the extent of their houses at the expense of public space: the House of the Fisherman was adapted to link two separate insulae turning a thoroughfare into a dead end. Finally an earthquake destroyed Bulla Regia, collapsing its first floors into the subterranean floors.</p><br>
<h3>Re-discovery</h3><br>
<p>The forum, surrounded by porticoes, was excavated in 1949–52. Its public basilica had an apse at each end. As a cathedral it had a highly unusual cruciform baptismal font inserted in the center of the rear (west end) of its nave (Jensen).</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>Bulla Regia was important enough to become a bishopric, suffragan of Carthage, which transformed the civil basilica into its cathedral. Bulla Regia was the seat of an ancient Bishopric bearing its name. The Bishopric was founded during the Roman Empire and survived through the arian Vandal and Orthodox Byzantine empires, only declined with the city and the arrival of Islam.</p><br>
<h3>Titular see</h3><br>
<p>The diocese was refounded in name at least in the 20th century when it was nominally restored as a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church and so far had the following near-consecutive incumbents, of the lowest (episcopal) rank, with a single archiepiscopal exception:</p><br>
<p>Jules Girard, Society of African Missions (S.M.A.) (1921.07.08 – 1950.03.23)</p><br>
<p>Herbert Bednorz (1950.05.04 – 1967.11.12)</p><br>
<p>Titular Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục (1968.02.17 – 1984.12.13), retired Metropolitan Archbishop of Huê</p><br>
<p>Adam Marcinkowski (1985.02.23 –...), Auxiliary Bishop of Płock</p><br>
<p>The Port of New York and New Jersey is the port district of the New York-Newark metropolitan area, encompassing the region within approximately a 25 mi radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. It includes the system of navigable waterways in the New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary, which runs along 650 mi of shoreline in the vicinity of New York City and northeastern New Jersey, as well as the region&#39;s airports and supporting rail and roadway distribution networks. Considered one of the largest natural harbors in the world, the port is by tonnage the third largest in the United States and the busiest on the East Coast.</p><br>
<p>The port is the nation&#39;s top gateway for international flights and its busiest center for overall passenger and air freight flights. There are two foreign-trade zones (FTZ) within the port. The port handled $208 billion in shipping cargo in 2011, and 3,342,286 containers and 393,931 automobiles in 2014. The largest ship, the CMA CGM Theodore Roosevelt to call at an East Coast port passed under the raised Bayonne Bridge in July 2017, signalling a new era of container capacity.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Port district</h3><br>
<p>Encompassing an area within an approximate 25 mi radius of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, the port district comprises all or part of seventeen counties in the region. The ten that are completely within the district are Hudson, Bergen, Essex, Union (in New Jersey), Westchester (in New York), and the five boroughs of New York City, which are coterminous with the counties of New York, Bronx, Kings, Queens, and Richmond. Abutting sections of Passaic, Middlesex, Monmouth, Morris, and Somerset in New Jersey, and Nassau and Rockland in New York are also within the district.</p><br>
<h3>Waterways</h3><br>
<h4>Bodies of water</h4><br>
<p>New York Harbor is one of the world&#39;s largest natural harbors.. The Atlantic Ocean is to the southeast of the port. The sea at the entrance to the port is called the New York Bight; it lies between the peninsulas of Sandy Hook and Rockaway. In Lower New York Bay and its western arm, Raritan Bay, vessels orient themselves for passage to the east into Arthur Kill or Raritan River or to the north to The Narrows. To the east lies the Rockaway Inlet, which leads to Jamaica Bay. The Narrows connects to the Upper New York Bay at the mouth of the Hudson River, which is sometimes (particularly in navigation) called the North River. Large ships are able to navigate upstream to the Port of Albany-Rensselaer. To the west lies Kill van Kull, the strait leading to Newark Bay, fed by the Passaic River and Hackensack River, and the northern entrance of Arthur Kill. The Gowanus Canal and Buttermilk Channel are entered from the east. The East River is a broad strait that travels north to Newtown Creek and the Harlem River, turning east at Hell Gate before opening to Long Island Sound, which provides an outlet to the open sea.</p><br>
<h4>Channels</h4><br>
<p>The port consists of a complex of approximately 240 mi of shipping channels, as well as anchorages and port facilities. Most vessels require pilotage, and larger vessels require tugboat assistance for the sharper channel turns.</p><br>
<p>The Ambrose leads from the sea to the Upper Bay, where it becomes the Anchorage Channel. Connecting channels are the Bay Ridge, the Red Hook, the Buttermilk, the Claremont, the Port Jersey, the Kill Van Kull, the Newark Bay, the Port Newark, the Elizabeth, and the Arthur Kill. Anchorages are known as Stapleton, Bay Ridge and Gravesend.</p><br>
<p>The natural depth of the harbor is about 17 ft, but it was deepened over the years, to a controlling depth of about 24 ft in 1880. By 1891, the Main Ship Channel was minimally 30 ft deep. In 1914, Ambrose Channel became the main entrance to the port, at 40 ft deep and 2,000 ft wide. During World War II the main channel was dredged to 45 ft deep to accommodate larger ships up to Panamax size. In 2016, the Army Corps of Engineers completed a $2.1 billion dredging project, deepening harbor channels to 50 ft in order to accommodate Post-Panamax container vessels, which can pass through the widened Panama Canal as well as the Suez Canal.</p><br>
<p>http://www.nan.usace.army.mil/harbor/deep.htm Why Deepen the Port? , USACE.</p><br>
<p>http://www.panynj.gov/DoingBusinessWith/seaport/pdfs/02_01_05_01c_LG.pdf Dredging Fleet Deepening NY/NJ Harbor, PortViews, Vol. 2, No. 3 October 2003, PANYNJ.</p><br>
<p>This has been a source of environmental concern along channels connecting the container facilities in Port Newark to the Atlantic. PCBs and other pollutants lay in a blanket just underneath the soil. In June 2009 it was announced that 200,000 cubic yards of dredged PCBs would be "cleaned" and stored en masse at the site of the former Yankee Stadium and at Brooklyn Bridge Park. In many areas the sandy bottom has been excavated down to rock and now requires blasting. Dredging equipment then picks up the rock and disposes of it. At one point in 2005, there were 70 pieces of dredging equipment working to deepen channels, the largest fleet of dredging equipment anywhere in the world.</p><br>
<p>The channel of the Hudson is the Anchorage Channel and is approximately 50 feet deep in the midpoint of Upper Bay. A project to replace two water mains between Brooklyn and Staten Island, which will eventually allowing for dredging of the channel to nearly 100 ft, was begun in April 2012. The Army Corps has recommended that most channels in the port be maintained at 50 feet deep. Dredging of the canals to 50 feet was completed in August 2016.</p><br>
<p>The channels also include bridges that limit the heights of vessels that can use the harbor. The Verrazano-Narrows Bridge has a clearance of 228 ft at mean high water. The Brooklyn Bridge has 135 ft of clearance, while the Bayonne Bridge has been raised from 155 ft to 215 ft.</p><br>
<h4>Pilotage</h4><br>
<p>The Sandy Hook Pilots are licensed maritime pilots that go aboard oceangoing vessels, passenger liners, freighters, and tankers and are responsible for the navigation of larger ships through port district.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The estuary was originally the territory of the Lenape, a seasonally migrational people who would relocate summer encampments along its shore and use its waterways for transport and fishing. Many of the tidal salt marshes supported vast oyster banks that remained a major source of food for the region until the end of the 19th century, by which time contamination and landfilling had obliterated most of them.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded European visit was that of Giovanni da Verrazzano, who anchored in The Narrows in 1524. For the next hundred years, the region was visited sporadically by ships on fishing trips and slave raids. European colonization began after Henry Hudson&#39;s 1609 exploration of the region with the establishment of New Amsterdam, the capital of the Dutch province of New Netherland at the tip of Manhattan. The British colonial era saw a concerted effort to expand the port in the triangular trade between Europe, Africa, and North America with a concentration of wharves along the mouth of the East River. After the Battle of Brooklyn, the British controlled the harbor for the duration of American Revolutionary War, and prison ships housed thousands at Wallabout Bay.</p><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, the Erie Canal (often used for grain) and Morris Canal (mostly used for anthracite) gave the port access to the American interior, leading to transshipment operations, manufacturing, and industrialization. The invention of the steam engine led to expansion of the railroads and vast terminals along the western banks of the Hudson River, complemented by an extensive network of ferries and carfloats, with a large cluster along the Harlem River.</p><br>
<p>The era of the ocean liner around the turn of the 20th century led to the creation of berths at North River piers and Hoboken. This coincided with the immigration of millions, processed at Castle Clinton and later at Ellis Island, some staying in the region, others boarding barges, ships, and trains to points across the United States. In 1910, the port was the busiest in the world.</p><br>
<p>During the World Wars the waterfront supported shipyards and military installations such as the Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company and the Brooklyn Navy Yard and played an important role in troop transport as a Port of Embarkation. The mid-century also saw the construction of major highways such as the Belt Parkway, East River Drive, and Major Deegan Expressway along parts of the shoreline.</p><br>
<p>The era of the longshoreman, captured in the classic film On the Waterfront, faded by the 1970s as much of the waterfront became obsolete due to changing transportation patterns. The nation&#39;s first facility for container shipping, which became the prototype, opened in 1958. Expanded intermodal freight transport systems and the Interstate Highway System effected a shift to new terminals at Newark Bay. Since the 1980s, sections of waterfront in the traditional harbor have been being redeveloped to include public access to the water&#39;s edge, with the creation of linear park greenways such as Hudson River Park, Hudson River Waterfront Walkway, and Brooklyn Bridge Park.</p><br>
<h2>Jurisdiction and regulation</h2><br>
<p>Responsibilities within the port are divided among all levels of government, from municipal to federal, as well as public and private agencies.</p><br>
<p>Established in 1921, the bi-state Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, in addition to overseeing maritime facilities, is responsible for the vehicular crossings and the rapid transit system between New York and New Jersey, several of the region&#39;s airports, and other transportation and real estate development projects. The Port Authority maintains its own police force, as does the Waterfront Commission, created in 1953 to investigate, prosecute, and prevent criminal activity. The United States Army Corps of Engineers, which has been involved in harbor maintenance since about 1826, when Congress passed an omnibus rivers and harbors act, is responsible for bulkhead and channel maintenance. Both states, and some municipal governments – in particular New York City – maintain maritime police units, while the United States Park Police monitors federal properties. The National Park Service oversees some of the region&#39;s historic sites, nature reserves, and parks. As a port of entry with sections that are foreign trade zones, U.S. Customs and Border Protection and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement regulate international imports and passenger arrivals and the "green lane" program, in which trusted shippers have fewer containers inspected. There are two foreign trade zones in the port: FTZ 1, the first in the nation, established in 1937, on the New York side of the port; and FTZ 49, on the New Jersey side. In 2010, 4,811 ships entered the harbor carrying over 32.2 million metric tons of cargo valued at over $175 billion.</p><br>
<p>In March 2006, some of the passenger facilities management was to be transferred to Dubai Ports World. There was considerable controversy over security and ownership by a foreign corporation, particularly one of Arab origin, of a U.S. port operation, despite the fact that the operator was British-based P&O Ports. DP World later sold P&O&#39;s American operations to American International Group&#39;s asset management division, Global Investment Group, for an undisclosed sum.</p><br>
<p>Seamen&#39;s Church Institute of New York and New Jersey, the Teamsters, and the International Longshoremen&#39;s Association assist and represent some of the port&#39;s mariners and dockworkers.</p><br>
<h2>Cargo infrastructure</h2><br>
<h3>Airports</h3><br>
<p>The airports in the Port of New York and New Jersey combine to create the largest airport system in the United States, the second in the world in terms of passenger traffic, and the first in the world in terms of total flight operations. JFK air freight cargo operations make it the busiest in the US. FedEx Express, the world&#39;s busiest cargo airline, uses Newark Liberty International Airport as its regional hub.</p><br>
<h3>Container terminals</h3><br>
<p>There are four container terminals in the port, whose combined volume makes it the largest on the East Coast, the third busiest in the United States, and 20th worldwide. Terminals are leased to different port operators, such as A. P. Moller-Maersk Group, American Stevedoring, NYCT, and Global Marine Terminal.</p><br>
<p>* Howland Hook Marine Terminal</p><br>
<p>* Port Jersey Marine Terminal</p><br>
<p>* Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal, the nation&#39;s first and third busiest</p><br>
<p>* Red Hook Marine Terminal</p><br>
<p>Approximately 3,200,000 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) of containers and 700,000 automobiles are handled per year. In the first half of 2014, the port handled 1,583,449 containers, a 35,000-container increase above the six-month record set in 2012, while the port handled a monthly record of 306,805 containers in October 2014.</p><br>
<p>In June 2010, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed to purchase from Bayonne 128 acre of land at the Military Ocean Terminal at Bayonne, indicating that additional container port facilities would be created. The agency is expected to develop a terminal capable of handling the larger container ships to be in service once the new, wider Panama Canal opens in 2014, some of which will not pass under the Bayonne Bridge at the Kill van Kull. A project to raise to the roadway of the bridge within the existing arch is underway.</p><br>
<h3>ExpressRail</h3><br>
<p>ExpressRail is rail network supporting intermodal freight transport at the major container terminals of the port. The development of dockside trackage and railyards for transloading has been overseen by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey which works in partnership other public and private stakeholders. Various switching and terminal railroads, including the Conrail Shared Assets Operations (CRCX) on the Chemical Coast Secondary connect to the East Coast rail freight network carriers Norfolk Southern (NS), CSX Transportation (CSX), and Canadian Pacific (CP). In the year period ending October 2014 the total amount of TEUs of Intermodal containers handled at the port included 391,596 rail lifts. As of 2014, three ExpressRail systems (Newark, Elizabeth, and Staten Island) were in operation. Construction of a fourth, with connection to the National Docks Secondary, is underway at Port Jersey. Financed by a surcharge on all containers passing through the port by train or truck and the system in 2014 handled just over 14% of total container volume.</p><br>
<h3>Bulk cargo and marine transfer</h3><br>
<p>While most consumer goods are transported in containers, other commodities such as petroleum and scrap metal are handled at facilities for marine transfer operations, bulk cargo, and break bulk cargo throughout the port, many along its straits and canals. At some locations, water pollution has led to inclusion on the list of Superfund sites in the United States.</p><br>
<p>* Arthur Kill, along its shore the Bayway Refinery and the Chemical Coast</p><br>
<p>* Kill van Kull at Constable Hook</p><br>
<p>* Gowanus Canal in South Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>* Newtown Creek, East River at Greenpoint and Hunter&#39;s Point</p><br>
<p>* Passaic River from Newark Bay to Passaic</p><br>
<p>* South Brooklyn Marine Terminal</p><br>
<h3>Car float and Cross Harbor Tunnel</h3><br>
<p>At one time nearly 600,000 railcars were transferred annually by barge between the region&#39;s extensive rail facilities. Today approximately 1,600 cars are "floated" on the remaining car float in the port. The New York New Jersey Rail, LLC transfers freight cars across the Upper Bay between the Greenville Yard in Jersey City and the 65th Street Yard and the Bush Terminal Yard in Brooklyn. At the Greenville end, CSX Transportation operates through Conrail&#39;s North Jersey Shared Assets Area along the National Docks Secondary. At Brooklyn, end connections are made to the New York and Atlantic Railway&#39;s Bay Ridge Branch and the South Brooklyn Railway. The 2.5 mi crossing takes approximately 45 minutes. The equivalent truck trip would be 35 to 50 mi long.</p><br>
<p>Freight rail has never used the New York Tunnel Extension under the Hudson Palisades, Hudson River, Manhattan, and East River due to electrified lines and lack of ventilation. Overland travel crosses the Hudson River 140 miles (225 km) to the north using a right of way known as the Selkirk hurdle. The Cross-Harbor Rail Tunnel is a proposed rail tunnel under the Upper Bay. The western portal would be located at Greenville Yard, while the eastern portal is undetermined and a source of controversy.</p><br>
<p>In May 2010, the Port Authority announced that it would purchase the Greenville Yard and build a new barge-to-rail facility there, as well as improve the existing railcar float system. The barge-to-rail facility is expected to handle an estimated 60,000 to 90,000 containers of solid waste per year from New York City, eliminating up to 360,000 trash truck trips a year. The authority&#39;s board authorized $118.1 million for the project. The National Docks Secondary rail line is being upgraded in anticipation of expanded volumes.</p><br>
<p>In September 2014, the PANYNJ announced a $356 million capital project to upgrade and expand the facility, including Roll-on/roll-off operations. Expected to be operational about July 2016, an initial capacity of at least 125,000 cargo container lifts a year is projected.</p><br>
<h3>Port Inland Distribution Network</h3><br>
<p>The Port Inland Distribution Network involves new or expanded transportation systems for redistribution by barge and rail for the shipped goods and containers that are delivered at area ports in an effort to curtail the use of trucks and their burden on the environment, traffic, and highway systems. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ), New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT), and Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission (DVRPC), are involved in initiatives to review and develop this network. To instantiate PIDN, the PANYNJ signed an agreement November 29, 2003 with the Port of Albany to provide twice weekly barge service. By 2014, the service had been discontinued.</p><br>
<h3>America's Marine Highway</h3><br>
<p>America&#39;s Marine Highway is a similar US Dept.of Transportation initiative to capitalize on US waterways for the transport of goods. In 2016, MARAD made a grant of $1.6 million to improve the terminal at Red Hook as part of the Marine Highway program. Barges carrying containers on a route between Red Hook and Newark began operation in September 2016.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, a private sector service provider began short sea shipping of aggregate products with a barge service between Tremley Point, Linden on the Arthur Kill and the Port of Salem to address a critical, yet weak link in freight transport with ports in the Delaware Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Cruise terminals and ferries</h2><br>
<h3>Cruise terminals</h3><br>
<p>The golden age of the North Atlantic ocean liner lasted from the end of the 19th century to the post–World War II period, after which innovations in air travel became commercially viable. Many berths for the great ships that lined the North River (Hudson River) were more or less abandoned by the 1970s. Nowadays most travel is recreational. While many cruises are to points in the Caribbean, there are also ships calling at the port that sail transatlantically and to the Southern Hemisphere, notably RMS Queen Mary 2. The passenger cruise ship terminals in the port are located in the traditional, or "inner", harbor.</p><br>
<p>* Cape Liberty Cruise Port, MOTBY, Upper Bay</p><br>
<p>* Brooklyn Cruise Terminal, Buttermilk Channel, Upper Bay</p><br>
<p>* New York Passenger Ship Terminal, Hudson River</p><br>
<h3>Ferries and sightseeing</h3><br>
<p>There has been continuous ferry service between Staten Island and Lower Manhattan since the 18th century. Travelling across the Upper Bay between South Ferry and St. George Ferry Terminal, the free Staten Island Ferry transports on average 75,000 passengers per day.</p><br>
<p>Service on the East River ended in the early 20th century and on the Hudson River in the 1960s. It has been restored and grown significantly since the 1980s providing regular service to points in Manhattan, mostly below 42nd Street. Major terminals are Hoboken Terminal, Battery Park City Ferry Terminal at World Financial Center, Paulus Hook Ferry Terminal, Weehawken Port Imperial, Pier 11/Wall Street, West Midtown Ferry Terminal, and the East 34th Street Ferry Landing. There also are numerous ferry slips that each serve one route only, including the historic Fulton Ferry. In addition to regular and rush hour routes, there are excursions, trips, and seasonal service to Gateway National Recreation Area beaches. Sightseeing boats circumnavigate Manhattan or make excursions into the Upper New York Bay.</p><br>
<p>* Circle Line Downtown</p><br>
<p>* Circle Line Sightseeing</p><br>
<p>* Ellis Island and Liberty Island</p><br>
<p>* Governor&#39;s Island Ferry (seasonal)</p><br>
<p>* Liberty Water Taxi</p><br>
<p>* New York Water Taxi</p><br>
<p>* NY Waterway</p><br>
<p>* New York Beach Ferry</p><br>
<p>* SeaStreak</p><br>
<p>* Staten Island Ferry</p><br>
<h2>Lights and lighthouses</h2><br>
<p>There are both historic and modern lighthouses throughout the port, some of which have been decommissioned</p><br>
<p>* Ambrose Light, Lower Bay (dismantled 2008)</p><br>
<p>* Bergen Point Light, Newark Bay (replaced)</p><br>
<p>* Blackwell Island Light, Roosevelt Island, East River (retired 1940)</p><br>
<p>* Chapel Hill Rear Range Light, Sandy Hook Bay (deactivated 1957)</p><br>
<p>* Conover Beacon (front range light), Leonardo</p><br>
<p>* Coney Island (Nortons Point) Light, Lower New York Bay, Sea Gate, Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>* Elm Tree Beacon Light, The Narrows, New Dorp, Staten Island</p><br>
<p>* Execution Rocks Light, Long Island Sound</p><br>
<p>* Fort Tompkins Light, The Narrows, Staten Island (retired)</p><br>
<p>* Fort Wadsworth Light, The Narrows, Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>* Great Beds Light, Raritan Bay, South Amboy</p><br>
<p>* Kings Point Light, Long Island Sound, Great Neck</p><br>
<p>* Kingsborough Community College Light, Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn</p><br>
<p>* Little Gull Island Light, Long Island Sound</p><br>
<p>* Little Red Lighthouse (Jeffrey&#39;s Hook Lighthouse), Fort Washington, Manhattan</p><br>
<p>* Navesink Twin Lights, Sandy Hook Bay, Highlands</p><br>
<p>* New Dorp Light, The Narrows, Staten Island Swash Channel (retired)</p><br>
<p>* North Brother Island Light, East River</p><br>
<p>* Old Orchard Shoal Light, Gedney Channel, lLower Bay</p><br>
<p>* Princes Bay Light, Staten Island</p><br>
<p>* Robbins Reef Light, Constable Hook, Upper Bay,</p><br>
<p>* Romer Shoal Light, Lower Bay near Sandy Hook Bay</p><br>
<p>* Sandy Hook Light, Sandy Hook</p><br>
<p>* Staten Island Light Lighthouse Hill, Staten Island</p><br>
<p>* Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, Upper Bay (until 1902)</p><br>
<p>* Stepping Stones Light, Long Island Sound, near City Island</p><br>
<p>* Stony Point light, Hudson River</p><br>
<p>* Throgs Neck Light, Throggs Neck, East River (decommissioned)</p><br>
<p>* Titanic Memorial, South Street Seaport, East River,</p><br>
<p>* West Bank Light, Ambrose Channel, Lower Bay (range front)</p><br>
<p>* Whitestone Point Light, Whitestone Point, southerly side of East River</p><br>
<h2>Land reclamation and ocean dumping</h2><br>
<p>Channelization and landfilling began in the colonial era and continued well into the 20th century. Early materials were shellfish and other refuse, and later construction debris from projects such as the New York City Subway and Pennsylvania Station. Rubble from the bombing of London was transported for ballast during World War II. New land has been created throughout the port, including large swaths that are now Battery Park City, Ellis Island, Liberty State Park, Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, and the Meadowlands Sports Complex.</p><br>
<p>From 1924 until 1986, sewerage sludge was hauled by tugboat and barge to a point 12 mi offshore in the Atlantic. From 1986 to 1992 it was dumped at a site 106 nautical miles from Atlantic City, after which ocean dumping was banned. Barges were also used to transport waste to Fresh Kills Landfill, the world&#39;s largest, which operated from 1948 to 1991. Both operations were known to be detrimental to Long Island and Jersey Shore beaches, notably the 1987 Syringe Tide.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Harbor-related historic sites, promenades, and nature preserves within the port district include:</p><br>
<p>* South Street Seaport</p><br>
<p>* Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum</p><br>
<p>* Gateway National Recreation Area</p><br>
<p>* Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island and Governor&#39;s Island</p><br>
<p>* Hudson River Park, Hudson River Waterfront Walkway, Brooklyn Bridge Park</p><br>
<p>* Liberty State Park and Communipaw Terminal</p><br>
<p>* Battery Park and Castle Clinton</p><br>
<p>* Hackensack Meadowlands, Riverwalk, and Environment Center</p><br>
<p>* Pier 63, New York Central Railroad 69th Street Transfer Bridge, and 79th Street Boat Basin</p><br>
<p>* Gantry Plaza State Park</p><br>
<p>* Manhattan Waterfront Greenway</p><br>
<p>* Hoboken Terminal</p><br>
<p>* City Island</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>In 2014, the port handled 3,342,286 containers and 393,931 automobiles.</p><br>
<p>In January through June 2015, the top 10 imports that went through the port of New York and New Jersey were:</p><br>
<p># Petroleum: $6.78 billion</p><br>
<p># Appliances: $3,80 billion</p><br>
<p># Vehicles: $2.59 billion</p><br>
<p># Plastics: $1.72 billion</p><br>
<p># Electronics: $1.46 billion</p><br>
<p># Chemicals: $1.45 billion</p><br>
<p># Oils and perfumes: $928.7 million</p><br>
<p># Pharmaceuticals: $897.5 million</p><br>
<p># Optical and photographic: $801.8 million</p><br>
<p># Pearls and precious gems and metals: $562.4 million</p><br>
<p>Many other islands in Nova Scotia and New England were named after various King Georges or other Georges. Unlike those in the US, those in Canada have as a rule kept that name.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was originally named île à la Raquette which means Snowshoe Island. For a brief time, the Island was known as île d&#39;Enville, named after the leader of the great Duc d’Anville Expedition who was buried on the island for a number of years. In 1749, the island was named "George Island" after King George II, and then finally, in 1963, it was renamed "Georges Island".</p><br>
<p>Upon the arrival of Edward Cornwallis and the outbreak of Father Le Loutre&#39;s War, fortifications were established on Citadel Hill (Fort George) (1749) and Georges Island (Fort Charlotte) (1750).</p><br>
<p>During the Seven Years&#39; War, two thousand French sailors were imprisoned on the island after the British victory in the Battle off Cape Race, Newfoundland.</p><br>
<p>During the war, Fort Charlotte was one of four forts where Acadians were imprisoned over the nine years of the Expulsion of the Acadians(the others were Fort Frederick, Saint John, New Brunswick; Fort Cumberland; and Fort Edward (Nova Scotia)). The Acadian prisoners in the vicinity of Halifax were subject to various degrees of confinement and dependence upon victualization, without the right to own land, continuously, from 1759 to 1768. According to historian Ronnie Gilles-LeBlanc there were approximately 1660 Acadians held prisoner on the island during the deportation (1755-1763), with a maximum of 600 prisoners at one time. Many Acadian men in the region were occupied with road building, fisheries, wharf building, and wood cutting, and lodged close to where they worked.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolution the 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants) were stationed at the fort to protect the harbour from American Privateers.</p><br>
<p>Georges Island was part of the "Halifax Defence Complex" from the mid-18th century to the Second World War, with Citadel Hill and Fort Charlotte on the island being restored by Parks Canada. For nearly two hundred years Georges Island was the scene of constant military activity. Tales of executions, forts and hidden tunnels surround the folklore associated with the mysterious island. It had an Island Prison Camp, a Look Out Point, an Acadian Prison camp, and a Quarantine Station.</p><br>
<p>The Georges Island Lighthouse was established on the island in 1876. The original wooden tower burned in 1917 and was replaced by an octagonal concrete tower in 1917. The light was manned until 1972 when it was automated and destaffed.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Although not yet open to the public, its fortifications named Fort Charlotte are currently undergoing restoration by the federal heritage department. Parks Canada has announced that they hope to open the park to visitors within the next 3 to 5 years (by 2012 - 2014). In March 2009, the federal government designated $3.5 million to install water, sewer and electrical services on the National Historic Site over the next year. “This would be the first step towards opening the island,” said Carla Wheaton, Parks Canada cultural resource manager. “Following that, we would still need to construct visitor facilities, such as washrooms (and) possibly a visitors’ centre.” For now, anyone wishing to visit must have permission from the Canadian Government. Georges Island is known to local fisherman to have lots of blueberries and black garter snakes. The "Great Offshore Picnic" takes place once a year on Georges Island. The island is part of Halifax Regional Municipality District 12. In addition to the ruins of Fort Charlotte, the island also contains the Georges Island Lighthouse and its keeper&#39;s dwelling. The Canadian Coast Guard operates an unmanned radar station commissioned in 1977.</p><br>
<p>Ma On Shan is a saddle-shaped peak in east of Tolo Harbour in the New Territories of Hong Kong. With a height of 702 metres , it stands among the ten highest mountains in Hong Kong. The mountain borders Sha Tin and Tai Po districts.</p><br>
<p>Beneath the west face of the mountain along Tolo Harbour, the Ma On Shan new town extension, administratively part of Sha Tin, is named after the hill. It ends north in Wu Kai Sha.</p><br>
<p>A group of villages located east of the peak is named Shap Sze Heung and the harbour of Three Fathoms Cove.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Ma On Shan can be distinguished by the west face which looks like a saddle. and "Ma On Shan" can be translated as "horse saddle mountain". Nine streams flow down from Ma On Shan, with the biggest located on the southwest slope of Ma On Shan, near Ma On Shan Village.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was formerly mined for its high-purity (60%) iron ore, with annual output in the 1950s and 1960s exceeding 100,000 tonnes. An extensive network of tunnels is buried under the hill. The iron mine was abandoned when it became uncompetitive, in the 1970s.</p><br>
<h2>Vegetation</h2><br>
<p>The north slope of Ma On Shan is mostly tree-covered, while the south slope is mainly shrubs and grasses. On these hostile volcanic hills, only hardy and highly adaptable plants survive. There are some rare flora species, including Rhododendron simsii, which blooms with red flowers in late March, and two other species of native Rhododendron. Rare and protected species of plants also grow on Ma On Shan including the Chinese Lily (Lilium brownii) which is found on the mountain&#39;s eastern slope.</p><br>
<p>A few types of wild orchid grow in the streams of Ma On Shan, including Hong Kong&#39;s most common orchid, the Bamboo Orchid, so called because its distinctive stem resembles bamboo.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The natural environment of Ma On Shan is relatively undisturbed, so this valuable sanctuary gives shelter to many wildlife species. Common mammals are Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), Chinese porcupine (Hystrix brachyura), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and common muntjac (Muntiacus muntjac).</p><br>
<h2>Summitting for sport</h2><br>
<p>Ma On Shan is one of the peaks used in the annual 4 Peaks running and sailing race in Hong Kong. It is a much prized feat among Hong Kong trail runners to test themselves on running to the top. The current Strava course record of 19 minutes and 8 seconds is held by local runner Matt Moroz and was set on 28 February 2014. However a local outdoor adventure club have a biannual event which also hikes Ma On Shan as a competition. The winning time is consistently under 18 minutes with the record of 17.46 set in 1991 by a then 49-year-old scout leader Wong Yip.</p><br>
<p>Kaptai Lake is the largest man made lake in Bangladesh. It is located in the Kaptai Upazila under Rangamati District of Chittagong Division. The lake was created as a result of building the Kaptai Dam on the Karnaphuli River, as part of the Karnaphuli Hydro-electric project. The Kaptai Lake&#39;s average depth is 100 ft and maximum depth is 490 ft.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the reservoir for the hydro-electric plant began in 1956 by the Government of East Pakistan. As a result, 54,000 acre of farmland in the Rangamati District went under water and created the lake.</p><br>
<p>The hydro-electric project was funded by the United States. The project was finished in 1962.</p><br>
<p>International Engineering Company and Utah International Inc. received the contract for construction of the dam. The dam is 670.8 meters long, and 54.7 meters high. The dam has a 745 ft long spillway containing 16 gates. Through the spillway 5,250,000 cuft/s of water can pass.</p><br>
<p>The land that went under water as a result of the dam construction, was 40% of the total arable land in the area. Along with that, 29 square miles of the Government-owned forest, and 234 square miles of other forest land went under water. About 18,000 families with a total of almost 100 thousand people were also displaced. The palace of the king of the Chakmas was also flooded and is now under water.</p><br>
<p>The Stryama  is a river in southern Bulgaria, an important left tributary of the Maritsa. The river is 110.1 km long and has a drainage basin of 1,394 km².</p><br>
<p>The Stryama takes it source from the Balkan Mountains under Vezhen Peak, named Kameniditsa in this section, turning east at Stryama Station to pass close to Klisura and turn southeast at Rozino entering the Karlovo Plain. It then makes a turn south at Banya, forming the Stremski prolom (Stryama Gorge) between the mountains Sashtinska and Sarnena Sredna Gora, where the Dalga Vada separates from it to later flow into the Maritsa as a separate river. Afterwards the Stryama passes a number of villages to empty into the Maritsa 15 km east of Plovdiv.</p><br>
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<p>Lake Pancharevo  is an artificial lake in western Bulgaria, at the end of the Pancharevo Gorge of the Iskar River, located at 600 m above sea level between the Vitosha and Lozenska mountains. It is 3 km long and up to 700 m wide, reaching a depth of 30 m, and is situated 12 km southeast of the capital city of Sofia, where the Vitoshka Bistritsa flows into the Iskar. The villages of Pancharevo and Kokalyane and the Pancharevo mineral springs lies on the lake&#39;s western shore, while at the southern end of the lake there is a hydroelectric power station. Sports centres and catering establishments have been constructed around the lake, making it a favoured outing location for the residents of Sofia. Further upstream in the gorge there are two additional artificial lakes: the Pasarel Reservoir and the Iskar Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>The lake was created in 1956 in connection with the construction of Hydrohub "Iskar", as a drinking, irrigation and energy source for the Sofia Agglomeration.</p><br>
<p>The (Sredets) National Rowing Base is located on the shore of Lake Pancharevo. Built in 1968, the rowing base is the first modern facility in Bulgaria, specializing in conducting training and competitions in rowing events. In 1977 it hosted the World Cup canoe in the capital, and in 1981, the World Championships for young people in water sports. Over the years, it has been host to several world championships, national and international rowing regattas, and the European Triathlon Championships.</p><br>
<p>The Sava Dolinka is a headwater of the Sava River in northwestern Slovenia. The 45 km long Sava Dolinka starts as Nadiža Creek in the Planica Valley under Mount Zadnja Ponca in the Julian Alps, at an elevation of 1222 m, close to the Italian border. The stream goes underground soon after its source and breaks out again after 5 km at an elevation of 842 m in Zelenci, near Kranjska Gora. The Sava Dolinka flows through Kranjska Gora, Gozd Martuljek, Jesenice, between Bled and Breg, and past the town of Lesce. The first in a series of hydroelectric power plants on the river, the Moste Hydro Power Plant , is located near Žirovnica. It merges with the second major headwater of the Sava, the Sava Bohinjka, at Radovljica. A notable tributary of the Sava Dolinka is the Radovna, which flows through the Vintgar Gorge near Bled.</p><br>
<p>South Morava or in the past Bulgarian Morava  is a river in eastern Kosovo and in southern Serbia, which represents the shorter headwater of Great Morava. Today, it is 295 km long. It flows generally in the south to north direction, from Macedonian border to Kosovo and onwards to Central Serbia, where it meets West Morava at Stalać, to create Great Morava.</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>The river rises in the Skopska Crna Gora mountain in Macedonia, north Skopje. Streams of Ključevska reka and Slatinska reka join together to form the river Golema, which is, after passing the Macedonian-Serbian border, known as Binačka Morava. After 49 km it meets Preševska Moravica at Bujanovac, and for the remaining of 246 km flows as South Morava.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>South Morava belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin, and its own drainage area is 15,469 km², out of which 1,237 is in Bulgaria (through its right tributary Nišava). Its average discharge at the mouth is 100 m³/s and it is not navigable.</p><br>
<p>South Morava has a composite valley, which means it consists of series of gorges and valleys in this order: Gnjilane valley – Končulj gorge – Vranje valley – Grdelica gorge – Leskovac valley – Niš valley – Aleksinac valley – Stalać gorge. After breaking through the last, Stalać gorge, it meets West Morava.</p><br>
<p>In macro-geological point of view, South Morava connects Aegean basin with Pannonian basin. This creates a phenomenon named apparent flow inversion, because it seems that river from one lowland climbs up the mountains and then flows into another lowland. The point connecting these two large geological basins is Grdelica gorge (Serbian: Grdelička klisura/Грделичка клисура), but the bottom of the gorge, where the river flows, is much lower than the mountains surrounding it, so the river flows normally.</p><br>
<p>South Morava used to be 318 km long and represented longer and natural (flowing in the same direction) headwater of Great Morava. Causing severe floods in history, meandering river has been shortened by almost 30 km until today, so it became shorter than West Morava. However, West Morava has always had bigger discharge.</p><br>
<p>Areas in southern Serbia where South Morava flows have been almost completely deforested, which causes one of the most severe cases of erosion in the Balkans. As a result of this, the river brings large amount of materials to the Great Morava, filling and elevating its river bed, which helps the huge floods of its daughter river.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>South Morava has 157 tributaries. The most important left ones are: Jablanica, Veternica, Pusta reka and Toplica. Right tributaries are: Vrla, Vlasina, Nišava (the longest) and Sokobanjska Moravica.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>South Morava has a significant potential for electricity production, but this has not been used at all. Huge hydroelectrical system has been constructed in its drainage basin, though (Vlasina- Vrla I-IV power stations).</p><br>
<p>To a certain extent, its waters are used for irrigation.</p><br>
<p>The most important role river valley has in transportation. It is the natural route for both railway and highway Belgrade–Skopje–Thessaloniki. It is part of the Pan-European corridor X, and the route of E75 Highway.</p><br>
<p>Gagra Range  is a mountain range of the Greater Caucasus in Abkhazia. The range runs between the valleys of the Bzyb and Psou rivers to the south of the Caucasus Major, in a general North-South direction. The highest elevation is 2,256 m .</p><br>
<p>The Gagra Range approaches the Black Sea close to the city of Gagra and plays an important role in moderating the climate of that resort by blocking cold, continental winds from the north and east.</p><br>
<p>The range is mostly made up of limestone, with pronounced karst topography and is characterized by many deep canyons created by rivers. The deepest cave in the world, the Voronya Cave, is located in the Arabika Massif of the Gagra Range.</p><br>
<p>A highway to Lake Ritsa runs by the range, along the Bzyb, Iupshara and Gega rivers.</p><br>
<p>The Valentin Blatz Brewing Company was an American brewery based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It produced Blatz Beer from 1851 until 1959, when the label was sold to Pabst Brewing Company.</p><br>
<p>Blatz beer is currently produced by the Miller Brewing Company of Milwaukee, under contract for Pabst Brewing Company.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Johann Braun opened City Brewery in 1846. Valentin Blatz established a brewery next door in 1850 and merged both breweries upon Brauns death in 1852. The brewery produced Milwaukees first individually bottled beer in 1874. It incorporated as the Valentin Blatz Brewing Company in 1889, and by the 1900s was the city&#39;s third-largest brewer.</p><br>
<p>During Prohibition, Blatz produced non-alcoholic beverages, from 1920 to 1933. In 1933, Blatz was issued U-Permit No. WIS-U-712, granting permission to resume brewing beer.</p><br>
<p>In 1958, Pabst Brewing Company, then the nation&#39;s tenth largest brewer, acquired Blatz, the eighteenth largest, from Schenley Industries. In 1959, the federal government brought an action charging that the acquisition violated Section 7 of the Clayton Act as amended by the Celler-Kefauver Anti-Merger amendment. The sale was voided in 1959 and Blatz closed that same year. In 1960, the assets of Blatz, including its labels, were sold to Pabst.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, Blatz was acquired from Pabst by the G. Heileman Brewing Company. Heileman, in turn, was acquired by the Stroh Brewery Company in 1996. On 8 February 1999, prior to its dissolution in 2000, the Stroh Brewery Company sold its labels to the Pabst Brewing Company and to the Miller Brewing Company. By 2007, Blatz was once again part of Pabst.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>The "Blatz" beer label currently is produced by the Miller Brewing Company of Milwaukee, under contract for Pabst Brewing Company. The Blatz Brewery Complex and Valentin Blatz Brewing Company Office Building in downtown Milwaukee are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The brewing companys office building has been converted into condominiums. The former Blatz bottling facility is now the Campus Center Building for the Milwaukee School of Engineering. The office building has been converted into the schools Alumni Partnership Center.</p><br>
<h2>Marketing</h2><br>
<p>Two famous Blatz/Milwaukee beer marketing slogans were "Blatz—Milwaukees Finest Beer" and "Blatz—Milwaukees Favorite Premium Beer". In later years, the brewery described its product as "Draft Brewed Blatz". The most famous jingle from the 1950s to early 1970s had the words "Kegs, Cans, or Bottles, all taste the same. The three best is one beer—Blatz is the name", playing on the fact that many other beers had a different taste when bottled and canned from how they tasted fresh from the keg. In the 1980s, Blatz was marketed directly against Pabst Blue Ribbon in the "working class" market, as seen in a 1981 "blind taste test" commercial featuring a steel worker.</p><br>
<p>Bowman Lake is in the northwestern portion of Glacier National Park in Montana. It is not commonly visited by most visitors to Glacier National Park, because it is located in one of the more remote areas of the park. It is more well-known among local residents, though, who use the small, uncrowded campground. The lake is accessed via a 6 mi unpaved road from the small town of Polebridge. At 1,706 acre, Bowman Lake is the third largest lake in the park, after Lake McDonald and Saint Mary Lake.</p><br>
<p>The campground is located close to the shore, and the trees along the site provide privacy. Day users can enjoy a peaceful lunch at the picnic ground, and there are several hiking trails within the area. Fishing, canoeing, and kayaking are also popular on the lake which is of a glacially cold temperature. Motorized boats of 10 horsepower (7 kW) or less are allowed on the lake. Because of the long, bumpy road, recreational vehicles and truck/trailer combinations are not recommended.</p><br>
<p>Kintla Lake is a lake in the northwestern portion of Glacier National Park in Montana. The lake is located in a rather remote portion of the park, close to the Canada–United States border. The lake is a 40 mi drive from the west entrance along bumpy dirt roads, but the scenery on the way is spectacular. At 1,698 acre, Kintla Lake is only slightly smaller than Bowman Lake, and is the fourth largest lake in the park.</p><br>
<p>Kintla originates from the Kutenai word for "sack". Kutenai legend states that a man had apparently drowned in one of the lakes which likened the lake to a sack where "once you got in, you couldn&#39;t get out".</p><br>
<p>Canoeing and kayaking are ideal on the lake, as no motorized watercraft are allowed. There is a quiet campground on the lake, and it is rarely filled because of its remote location. Fishing is also popular on the lake, because of the trout found in it. There are also options for day hikes and extended hikes into the backcountry in the area.</p><br>
<p>The Ropotamo  is a relatively short river in southeastern Bulgaria. It takes its source from the Strandzha Mountains, running for 48.5 km to empty into the Black Sea between Dyuni and Primorsko.</p><br>
<p>The river is most often noted for its 30 m-wide mouth that is home to an abundance of flora species, over 100 of which endangered in the country. The lower section of the Ropotamo is a nature reserve since 1940 and a protected area. The lower Ropotamo is a popular tourist attraction because of the water lilies and the rock formations above the river, on some of which white-tailed eagles nest.</p><br>
<h2>Honour</h2><br>
<p>Ropotamo Glacier on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Ropotamo River.</p><br>
<p>The Hill of Uisneach or Ushnagh is an ancient ceremonial site in the barony of Rathconrath in County Westmeath, Ireland . While it is not the exact geographical centre of Ireland, in Irish mythology it is often considered to be the symbolic center of the land, and is associated with the fire festival of Bealtaine. The hill is 182 m tall and lies on the north side of the R390 road, 8 km east of the village of Ballymore and beside the village of Loughanavally. The Hill of Uisneach occupies parts of four adjacent townlands: Ushnagh Hill, Mweelra, Rathnew, and Kellybrook.</p><br>
<p>The site consists of a set of monuments and earthworks spread over two square kilometres. Around and upon the hill are the remains of circular enclosures, barrows, cairns, a holy well and two ancient roads. On the southwest side of the hill is a large, oddly-shaped limestone rock inside a circular enclosure. It is almost 6 m tall and thought to weigh over 30 tons. In Irish it is called the Ail na Míreann ("stone of the divisions"), as it is said to have been where the borders of the provinces met. It is nicknamed the Cat Stone, allegedly because it resembles the shape of a sitting cat. The biggest enclosure was excavated in the 1920s by R.A.S. Macalister and R. Praeger and showed evidence of occupation from pre-history up to the early Middle Ages.</p><br>
<p>Based on co-ordinates alone, some believe that it may be the site named as Raiba or Riba by Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy), the Egyptian-Greek astronomer and cartographer, writing in his Geographia around the year 140 AD.</p><br>
<p>The actual geographical centre of Ireland is near the western shore of Lough Ree, further to the west.</p><br>
<h2>In Irish mythology</h2><br>
<p>While Irish mythology and cosmology have foundational differences from classical mythology, the ceremonial centre of the land could be compared to a type of Axis Mundi, and the Ail na Míreann or "stone of divisions" a type of omphalos, or mystical navel, of Ireland and to have marked the meeting point of the borders of Leinster, Munster, Connacht, Ulster and Meath. Tradition tells that Bealtaine fires were lit and Druidical ceremonies held on the hill. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn (Book of the Takings of Ireland), the Nemedian Druid Mide lit the first Bealtaine fire there. This fire could allegedly be seen from the Hill of Tara and, when those at Tara saw it, they lit their fire.</p><br>
<p>There is reference to the name in the story of "Deirdre of the Sorrows", one of the best known stories of pre-Christian Ireland. Deirdre was born with a prediction that her beauty would be so great that Kings would wage wars to fight for her. Conchobar mac Nessa, King of Ulster, kept her hidden away from birth for himself in the future. When older she falls in love with Naoise, a handsome young warrior, hunter and singer at Conchobar&#39;s court. They escape to Scotland accompanied by his fiercely loyal brothers Ardan and Ainnle, the sons of Uisneach.</p><br>
<p>According to a popular passage from the same record, Ériu, a tutelary goddess sometimes seen as the personification of Ireland, meets the invading Milesians at Uisneach where, after some conversation and drama, the Milesian poet Amergin promises to give the country her name. Geoffrey of Monmouth&#39;s Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain") claims a common belief that the stones of Stonehenge were brought to Britain from Uisneach.</p><br>
<p>Lake Gunn is a lake in the South Island of New Zealand, located at {{coord|44|53|S|168|05|E|type:waterbody_region:NZ}}.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>A small lake between Lake Te Anau and Milford Sound, it lies close to the New Zealand State Highway 94 (the Milford Sound Road) and the Divide of the Southern Alps. The small tramping camp of Cascade Creek lies close to the lake&#39;s southern end. The west branch of the Eglinton River flows through the lake. There is a http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-stay/conservation-campsites-by-region/fiordland/northern-fiordland/lake-gunn/ Department of Conservation campsite located within.</p><br>
<p>The lake is within the boundary of the Fiordland National Park, and is surrounded by native bush. Several smaller lakes lie nearby, including Lake Fergus and Lake McKellar. Several mountains stand close to the lake&#39;s western shore, notably Melita Peak (1680 m) and the former Consolation Peak (1760 m) which in December 2012 was nominated to be named after Author JRR Tolkien to the New Zealand Geographic Board to mark two historic events. "The Divide", the saddle between the valleys of the Eglinton and Hollyford Rivers, lies four kilometres north of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The lake was named after George Gunn, a runholder, who discovered the lake in 1861.</p><br>
<p>the name Consolation Peak originated from local Mountaineer Sir Erskine Bowmar but due to an administrative error was placed on the wrong mountain.</p><br>
<p>In 1980 The Name Consolation Peak was moved to another nearby mountain bearing a JRR Tolkien name Mount Gondor (submitted in 1973 at the time of JRR Tolkien&#39;s death). Mount Gondor was subsequently omitted from Land Information New Zealand maps from 1980 onwards</p><br>
<p>Mount Cragus or Mount Cragos or Mount Kragos  &ndash; also recorded as Hiera Acra &ndash; is a mountain in Turkey, in what was formerly ancient Lycia, Asia Minor.</p><br>
<p>Strabo (p. 665), whose description proceeds from west to east, after the promontory Telmissus, mentions Anticragus, on which is Carmylessus, and then Cragus, which has eight summits (or he may mean capes), and a city of the same name. Pinara, in the interior, was at the base of Cragus. There are coins of the town Cragus of the Roman imperial period, with the epigraph Λυκιων Κρ. or Κρα. or Κραγ. The range of Anticragus and Cragus is represented in the map in Spratt and Forbes as running south from the neighbourhood of Telmissus, and forming the western boundary of the lower basin of the river Xanthus. The southern part is Cragus. The direction of the range shows that it must abut on the sea in bold headlands. In Francis Beauforts map of the coast of Karamania, the Anticragus is marked 6000 feet high. Beauforts examination of this coast began at Yediburun (Yedy-Booroon), which means "the Seven Capes", a knot of high and rugged mountains that appear to have been the ancient Mount Cragus of Lycia. The ruins of Pinara are where Strabo describes them, on the east side of this range, about halfway between Telmissus and the termination of the range on the south coast. There is a pass leading between the summits of Cragus and Anticragus. Between the two chief peaks is a plain 4000 feet above the sea; and above it rises the highest peak of Cragus, more than 2500 feet above this elevated plain. The first half of the ascent from the plain is through a thick forest, and the remainder over bare rock. From the summit there is a view of the whole plain of Xanthus, and of the gorges of the Massicytus, which lies east of it. The side towards the sea is so steep, that from this lofty summit the waves are seen breaking white against the base of this precipitous mountain mass. It appears that Strabo is right when he describes a valley or depression as separating Anticragus and Cragus; and the highest part, which towers above the sea at the Seven Capes, seems to be the eight summits that Strabo speaks of. There was a promontory Cragus, according to Scylax and Pliny the Elder (v. 27), which must be the Seven Capes. The Hiera Acra of the Stadiasmus seems also to be the Seven Capes. The position of the Cragus between Xanthus and Telmissus is mentioned by Pomponius Mela (i. 15), and he also probably means the same striking part of the range.</p><br>
<p>The rocks and forests of Cragus were embellished by poetic fictions as the occasional residence of Diana. Here, according to the authority quoted by Stephanus of Byzantium (s. v. Κράγος), were the so-called θεῶν ἀγρίων ἄντρα.</p><br>
<p>Lake Sherburne is located in the Many Glacier region of Glacier National Park, in the U. S. state of Montana. The lake is a reservoir, formed by Lake Sherburne Dam, which impounded Swiftcurrent Creek and was constructed in between 1914 and 1921. The construction of the dam inundated several small lakes and highly productive riparian and wetland areas, and due to its fluctuating water levels, the surrounding area supports little vegetation. However, trumpeter swans are often observed along the lake in the spring and fall. The lake stretches nearly 6 mi when full. The reservoir is the principal water storage component of the USA Bureau of Reclamation&#39;s Milk River Project, which provides irrigation water to north central Montana farms.</p><br>
<p>The name Lake Sherburne is derived from an early settler and businessman in the area, Joseph H Sherburne. He settled in the area (Browning) in 1896 and was the proprietor of the Sherburne Mercantile Company which had stores in towns in the area Browning, Babb and East Glacier. During this time he had a cabin for summer use by his family on the shore of what became known as Sherburne Lakes (plural). Once the dam was built in 1919 the name was revised to Lake Sherburne.</p><br>
<p>Fishing along the lake is less than spectacular, but brook trout and northern pike can be caught there. A boat is generally required for fishing, but since there is no boat dock along the lake, it is usually necessary to park alongside the road and walk down to the lakeshore.</p><br>
<p>Logan Martin Lake is a reservoir located in east central Alabama on the Coosa River approximately 30 mi east of Birmingham, Alabama. This 17,000 acre reservoir was built in 1965 by Alabama Power Company. The lake, nicknamed Lake of a Thousand Coves by locals, has 275 mi of shoreline along its 48.5 mi length sandwiched between Logan Martin Dam on the south and Neely Henry Dam on the north. The depth of the lake is 35 to 110 ft with only five feet average water level variance. Logan Martin Lake offers boating, skiing and swimming.</p><br>
<p>The lake borders St. Clair and Talladega counties. The reservoir extends 48.5 mi from Logan Martin Dam upstream to Neely Henry Dam, and it contains 15,263 acre. Logan Martin has roughly 273 mi of shoreline.</p><br>
<p>Alabama has a lake of a similar name, the Lake Martin on the Tallapoosa River, but Lake Martin and Logan Martin Lake are not part of the same river system.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>Logan Martin Lake begins at the discharge of Neely Henry Dam near Ohatchee, Alabama (near the site of former Coosa River Lock 3) and extends south to Logan Martin Dam near Vincent, Alabama. The Coosa River is the primary inflow for the lake, in addition to numerous lakes and rivers. Prevailing flow is from the north to the south along a meandering course. The Coosa River arises in the Appalachian Mountains and its waters, and those of Logan Martin Lake, eventually discharge into Mobile Bay and the Gulf of Mexico through the Alabama River and Mobile River. The Lake is largely a run-of-the-river reservoir through its upper reaches. From the location of Lock 4 to the I-20 bridge, the river expands, but is still largely confined to the original course of the Coosa River and the immediate mouths of tributary streams rather than spreading over the floodplain like a typical reservoir. From the I-20 bridge in the Riverside area to the Logan Martin Dam (approximately 23 miles), the lake expands to a width much greater than the original river channel, with large areas of open water and many medium to large sized sloughs and creeks. The maximum depth at the dam is 69 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Logan Martin Lake is situated in the Northern Piedmont Physiographic Province of Alabama, characterized by generally low ridges at the very southern reach of the Appalachian Mountains. The reservoir lies primarily within the Ordovician Knox Group (OCk).</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Numerous aquatic species make their home in Logan Martin Lake with game and non-game fish being the dominant interest for human use. Numerous local and national fishing tournaments are held on the lake annually, the lake has also hosted championship events of the FLW Outdoors Tour and the Bassmaster Classic in 1992, 1993, and 1997. Large numbers of both largemouth and spotted bass inhabit the lake, as well as striped bass, white bass, hybrid bass, crappie, catfish (mostly of the channel variety), bream, drum, carp, and gar. Fish in Logan Martin lake are polluted with, in some cases, substantial amounts of Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), originating from Choccolocco Creek, and ultimately Anniston, Alabama. The pollution culminated with several high-profile class action lawsuits in the early 2000s, one of which was led by attorney Johnnie Cochran.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Coosa River was long used for steamship navigation as far north as Rome, Georgia. An extensive series of locks allowed passage along shoals and ledges in the river. After steamships were replaced by roads and railroads, the site of proposed Lock 7 was selected for a large dam to provide hydropower, flood control, and recreation. Construction started on the gravity concrete and earth fill dam July 18, 1960 and it was placed in service August 10, 1964. Logan Martin Dam is named after William Logan Martin, Jr., a judge and Attorney General in Alabama in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Logan Martin Lake contributes millions of dollars annually to the communities surrounding the lake in the form of increased property values, expenditures by recreational visitors at local businesses, and low-cost hydropower for the state. Its proximity to the large population center of Birmingham leads to heavy use by recreational boaters during the summer. The vast majority of the boat traffic is between I-20 and Logan Martin Dam, with the traffic increasing in the more open areas surrounding the Logan Martin Dam.</p><br>
<p>Neely Henry Lake is located on the Coosa River near Gadsden, Alabama. The lake was formed by the Neely Henry Dam , built in 1966 by Alabama Power Company for hydroelectric power and recreation.</p><br>
<p>Completed on June 2, 1966, the dam and reservoir were named for H. Neely Henry, a senior executive vice-president of Alabama Power. The dam has a 72,900 kilowatt generating capacity; the lake covers 11,200 surface acres (45.3 km²) with a total capacity of 129,800 acre-feet and about 339 miles of shoreline. The nearest town is Ohatchee, Alabama to the East of the dam, and Ragland, Alabama to the West. It is an excellent recreational lake with fishing opportunities for largemouth bass, spotted bass, bluegill and other sunfish, crappie, catfish, striped bass, hybrid and white bass. Alabama Power maintains three public access sites on the lake.</p><br>
<p>Timbun Mata Island  is the largest island on the south side of Darvel Bay, in Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia. It is over 26 kilometres long and at the widest is almost 10 kilometres wide. The island is mountainous and was formerly  densely wooded. Mt. Tannabalu, the highest point at 620 m., is a conical, extinct volcano located at the centre of the island. A secondary peak, Mt. Sedungal, at the east end of the island rises to 489 m. The south side of the island is only separated from the mainland by a shallow channel known as the Trusan Sigalong. It is located at 4°39 N 118°25 E with an area of 114.97 km².</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island has been inhabited since before records were kept. There are several villages on the island which have been there for at least several hundred years, Mantandak (in the west), Lakai Lakai (north), Dap Dap (northeast) and Kubor (east). In addition there are newer, illegal settlements which have sprung up on the southeastern portion of the island.</p><br>
<p>The island was declared a forest reserve in 1930, but had been planted in teak as early as the 1880s. The teak forests have been periodically surveyed, but inroads by illegal logging and land clearing has reduced them.</p><br>
